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:c^^5::^^r^~r\^L\-:,^^/^..m^i:^n.rijML 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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Greenhouse Construction 

A COMPLETE MANUAL 

OX THE 

Building, Heating, Ventilating and Arrangement 



OF 



GREENHOUSES 



AXD THE 



Construction of Hotbeds, Frames and Plant Pits 



L. E. TAFT 

Professor of Horticulture and Landscajw Gardeniuy, Michigan Agrh 
cultural College 



ILLUSTRATED 




NEW YORK 2 V S 7^ y 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

1894 



\' 



-> 



Copyright, 1893, 
By ORANGE JUDD CO^rPANT 



PREFACE. 



In the summer of 1889 the writer erected two forc- 
ing houses for tlie Micliigan State Experiment Station. 
The}' wei'e designed to be experimental in tlicir construc- 
tion, and afforded means for a comi)arative test of vari- 
ous methods of building, glazing and A'entilating, and of 
tjie relative merits of steam and hot water for green- 
house lieating. When the houses had been used one 
season, a bulletin was issued, in which the construction 
was described, and the merits or demerits of the methods 
used were pointed out. During the winter a test of the 
heating systems was made, and the results were given in 
the same bulletin. The report was widely distributed, 
and was copied in full by many horticultural and engi- 
neering periodicals, Avhile others gave it favorable notices, 
which led hundreds of prospective builders of green- 
houses, in all jjarts of the country, to apjily for copies, 
and made a second edition necessary. From nearly 
every State in the Union came letters, asking advice 
upon various points in greenhouse construction and 
heating, all of which indicated, not only that there was 
a widespread desire for information on these subjects, 
but that the sources of information were quite limited. 

At the request of the publishers, the preparation of 
this book was undertaken, and the attempt has b:>en 
made to })resent the best methods of greenhouse con- 
struction. 

Although with fifteen years' experience in green- 
house management and a large experience in greenhouse 



iV PREFACE. 

construction, all of which lias been in connection with 
the agricultural colleges of various states, where there 
was an excellent opportunity of testing the ditferent 
wrinkles in construction that have been, from time to 
time," brought out, the Avriter has availed himself of 
various opportunities, during the past three years, to 
visit the leading floral and vegetable growing establish- 
ments of more than a dozen large cities, between Boston 
and St. Louis, and has made a careful study of the 
methods employed. Many of the leading florists have 
submitted their ideas, either in personal interviews or 
by correspondence, and from the pages of the American 
Gardening, American Florist, Gardening, American 
Agriculturist, and other jjeriodicals, much useful infor- 
mation has been obtained. 

8ome of the firms that are engaged in the building 
and heating of greenhouses have been in business for 
many years, and have had a wide experience. From 
them, too, many valuable points have been received, and 
it is to their kindness that we are indebted for the illus- 
trations of the exteriors and interiors of some of the 
most noted houses in the c()untr3\ 

The information here presented has, therefore, come 
to us from a variety of reliable sources, and, instead of 
being the author, the writer can only claim to bo the 
editor of this collaborative book. 

With the multitude of persons who have aided us in 
its preparative, it is impossible to render acknowledg- 
ment to them individually, but to each and all are 
extended the hearty thanks of 

L. K. TAFT. 
Agricultural Collkui:, ^Iicu. 



CONTENTS. 



Preface, .......... iii 

CHAPTER I. 
HisToKY OF Greenhouses, ...... 1 

CHAPTER II. 

Different Forms of Greenhouses— Even Sp.\n, Lean-to, 

Side-hill, ......... 6 

CHAPTER III. 
Three-Quarter Span Houses, ...... 16 

CHAPTER IV. 
Location and Arrangement, ...... 21 

CHAPTER V. 
Greenhouse Walls, ....... 24 

CHAPTER VI. 
Construction of the Roof, ...... 33 

CHAPTER VII. 
Combined Wood and Iron Construction,. ... 40 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Iron Houses, ......... 44 

chapter ix. 
The Pitch of the Roof, ....... 40 

CHAPTER X. 
Gl.\ss and Glazing, ........ 56 

CHAPTER XI. 
Glazing— Methods and Materials, .... 59 

CHAPTER XII. 
Ventilators, ......... 6T 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Greenhouse Benches, ....... 7C> 

CHAPTER XIV. 
Painting and Shading, ....... 85- 

CHAPTER XV. 
Greenhouse Heating, ....... 90 

CHAPTER XVI. 
Pipes .\nd Piping, ........ 97 



VI GREEXHOUSE CO]S^STRUCTIO^^ 

CIIiVrTKU XVII. 

Size and Amount of Piping, ...... io4 

CHAPTEIl XVIII. 
Hot AVatek Heaters, ....... 115 

CHAl'TER XIX. 
Steam Heating, ........ 123 

CHAPTER XX. 
I'omi'AUative Merits of Steam and Hot Water, , . 129 

CHAPTER XXI. 
Heating Small Conservatories, ..... 134 

CHAPTER XXII. 
Commercial Establishments, ...... 139 

CHAPTER XXII I. 

Rose houses, . . . . . . . . . 142 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

Lettuce Houses, ........ 154 

CHAPTER XXV. 
Propagating House, ....... 157 

chapter xxvi. 
Hotbeds, .......... 159 

chapter xxvii. 
Conservatories, ........ ict; 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 
The Arrangement of Greenhouses, .... 185 

CHAPTER XXIX. 

Glass Structures for Amateurs, ..... 195 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Fig. 1. English Greenhouse of 17th Century, 

2. First American Green liouse, 

3. Model Greenhouse of 1835, 

4. First Chicago Greenhouse, 

5. Even Span Greenliouse, 

6. Ridge and Furrow Houses, 

7. Lean-to House, .... 

8. Side-Hill Houses. 

9. Three-Quarter Span House, . 

10. Curvilinear House, . 

11. Grout Wall 

12. Grout and Wooden Wall, . 

13. Brick Wall witli Wooden Sill, 

14. Brick Wall with Iron Sill, . 

15. Wooden Wall, .... 

16. Wooden Wall with Glass Side, . 

17. Iron Post and Sill, 

18. Sash Bar with Drip Gutters, 

19. Plain Sash Bar, .... 

20. 21, 22. Sash Bars for Butted Glass, 

23. Plain Sasli Bar for Butted Glass, . 

24. Greenhouse with Portable Roof, 

25. Elevation and Details for Wooden Roof 

26. Details for Iron and Wood Roof, 

27. Gas Pipe Purlin, 

28. Iron Bracket for Roof, 

29. Iron Posts and Braces, 
30,31. Helliwell Patent Glazing, 
32. Paradigm Glazing, 
33,34. Galvanized Iron Sash Bars, . 

35. Effect of Glass at Different Angles, 

36. Short Span to the South Houses, 

37. Glazing Points, .... 

38. Paint Bulb, .... 

39. Ives' Putty Machine, . 

40. Gasser's Glazing Strip, 

41. New Methods of Glazing, 

42. Arrangement of Ventilators, 

43. A Simple Ventilating Apparatus, . 

44. New Departure Ventilating Apparatus 

45. Standard Ventilating Apparatus, . 

46. Challenge Ventilating 3Iachine, 

47. A Clieap Fixture, 

48. Outside Shafting, 

49. Wooden Benches, 

50. Gas Pipe Bench Supports, 

51. iMendenhall's Bench, . 

52. Hill's Bench, .... 

53. Angle Iron Bench, 

vii 



2 
3 
3 
4 
7 

10 
13 
15 

ir 
1» 

25 
26 
27 
2» 
29 
30 
31 
34 
34 
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39 
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54 
61 
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65 
66 
68 
70 
71 
72 
73 
74 
75 
77 
78 
79 
80 
81 



Vlll 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 



54. Bench Tiles 

55. Wiglit's Patent Bench, 

56. Wood anil Shite Bench, 

57. The Slope of the Bipes, 

58. rndiu- Bench I'iping (wide honse), 

59. Under Bench Bipinii (narrow house), 

60. t)verhead Biping (sliorl span lo the south house), 

61. Combined Overhead and Under Bench Piping, 

62. Combined Piping tor Even Span House, 

63. Combined Piping for Forcing House, 

64. Arrangement of the Coils, 

65. Carmody Hot Water Heater, . 

66. Hitchings' Heater, . 

67. Weathered's Conical Heater, 

68. 6!), 70. Spence Heater, 
71. Fnrman I'ortalilc Heater, 
Ti. Furman Bricli Sel Healer, 

73. Hitchings' Base Burning Heater, 

74. Interior of Steam Heated House, 

75. Barnard Heater, 

76. Plan for a Small Establishment, 

77. Modern Rose Houses (wood), 

78. Extensive Rose Houses (iron), 

79. (Jround Plan of Above, 

80. Section of Iron Rose House, 

81. Interior of Rose House (iron), 

82. Sectioit of Rose House (wood), 

83. Section of Lean-to Lettuce House, 

84. Holbed Frame, 

85. Hotbed with Sash, 

86. Hotbed Shutter, 

87. Hotbed Yard, 

88. Cold Pit, 

89. Large Attached Conservatory, 

90. jModern Detached Conservatory, 

91. Conservatory (section), 

92. Interior of Conservatory, . 

93. I'alm House of I'itcher & Manda, 

94. Stove Room (section), 

95. C(jmbined Stove and Orchid Honse 
9(). Orchid House (section), 

97. Forcing Grapery (s(>ct ion), 

98. Even Span <ira]ier\ (section), 

99. Curvilinear (irai>ery (section), 

100. (ireenhouses of Michigan Agricultural College 

101. (Jround I'lan of Same, . 

102. Kangi! of Houses by Weathered, 

103. Range of Houses bV Hitchings, 

104. (;ro\uid Plan of llilchings Range, 

105. Range by Lor<l & Bnrnham Co., 
10(;. Cround Plan of Above, 

107. Forcing House (section), 

108. Rose House (section), 

109. Veranda Conservatory, 
1 iO. Veranda Conservatory (sect ion), 

111. Small Attached Conservatory, 

112. A Clieap House, 

113. PortabN' Conservatory, 

114. Porl:il)le Conservatory (section), 

115. (Jround Plan of Basen'ient Pit, 

110. Details for Basement Pit, . 

117. Cellarway Conservatory, 

118. Cellarway Conservatory (section), 



82 
83 
84 
100 
106 
107 
108 
109 
110 
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112 
115 
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202 
203 
204 
205 
206 
207 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 



CHAPTER I. 

HISTORY OF GREENHOUSES. 



It is knowu that the old Romans were able to secure 
fresh fruits and vegetables, for their banquets, the year 
round, by both retarding and accelerating their growth. 
As an indication of their skill, it is said that they even 
forced the cucumber. They possessed no elaborate 
structures for this j)urpose, but gi*ew them in pits cov- 
ered with large slabs of talc. Heat was obtained from 
decomposing manure, and by means of hot air flues. 
They are believed to have had peach and grape houses, 
and it is claimed by some, tliat hot water in bronze pipes 
was used to warm them. 

In modern times the structures have undergone a 
gradual development, from houses containing no glass 
whatever, to the forcing house of to-day, which is 
nearly ninety-five per cent, of glass. The first house of 
which we have any record, was built by Solomon de 
Cans, at Heidelberg, Germany, about 1619. It was 
used to shelter over four hundred orange trees planted in 
tlie ground, during the winter, and consisted of wooden 
shutters placed over a span roof framework, so as to 
form the walls and roof. It was warmed by means of 
four large furnaces, and ventilated by opening small 
shutters in the sides and roof. In the spring the frame-, 
work was taken down. This structurCj in size^ com* 

1 



'/J C4KEEMI0LSE CONSIKUCTION. 

pared well with the greenhouses of to-day, as it was two 
liundred and eighty feet long and thirty-two feet wide. 
On account of the expense of j)ntting up and taking 
down this framework, and of keeping it in repair, it 
was replaced by a structui-e of freestone. This had an 
opaque roof, and the openings in the sides were closed 
■with shutters during the winter. In 1084 Ray describes 
a glass house (Fig. 1) used in tho Apothecaries' Garden, 







FIG. 1. ENGLISH GREEIf HOUSE OF 17tH CENTURY. 

Chelsea, England, Avhich evidently was quite similar to 
the one at Heidelberg, except that it had glass windows 
in the side walls ; the roof, however, was opaque. It 
was not until 1717 that glass roofs were used, and from 
that time, for one hundred years, few imj^rovements 
were made. 

During the first part of the present century consid- 
erable attention was given to the slope of the roof, and 
in 1815 the hemispherical form was first used. Before 
the use of glass for the roof became common, the green- 
houses often occupied the first floor of two-story struc- 
tures, while the second floor was occupied by the gar- 
dener as a residence, or Avas used as a storeroom. 

The earlier greenhouses of thiS' country were not 
unlike those used in Europe during the eighteenth ceu- 



HISTORY OF GREENHOUSES. 



tury. In the American Florist for Feb. 15, 1887, is 
the description and figure of what is supposed to be tiie 



'J 



FIG. 3. FIRST AMERICAN GREENHOUSE. 

first American greenhouse (Fig. 2), it having been 
erected in New York, in 1764, for James Beekman, 
Although the structures were less elaborate, the Ameri- 
can builders took up and utilized any improvements m 
construction and heating that were brought out in 
Europe. 

In Hovey's Majazine of Horticulture, for January 

1836, is a description of a 
model greenhouse, erected 
by Mr, Sweetser, of Cam- 
bridgeport; Mass. From 
Fig 3, in whicli a cross sec- 
tion is shown, it will be 
seen that glass was used in 
the entire south slope of 
Z the roof and in the soutii 
wall. The north slope of 
3. MODEL GREENHOUSE the roof and the north Wall 
OF 1835. were of wood. The heat- 

ing system combined the flue with hot water. The hot 




FI 



4 GREENHOUSE CONSTKUCTIOlSr. 

water system consisted of an open copper kettle, or 
heater ( /'), from the top of wliich a four-inch copper 
l)ipe passed across the end of the liouse, and then along 
the ojiposite side, to a large copper reservoir (e) ; the 
return pipe was located on a level, just beneath the flow, 
entering the boiler near the bottom. The flue was car- 
ried to one side until it reached the walk (c), ^nd then 
ran under this to the other end of the house, where it 
was connected with the chimney [d). 

In the West, greenhouse construction was more 
backward, and yet, as early as 1836, a Mr. Thomas, 




FIG. ■!. FIRST CHICAGO G HEEif jOLSE. 



according to the American Florist, erected one in Chi- 
cago, of which an illustration is shown in Fig. 4. As 
will be seen from the engraving, the three-quarter span 
houses had even then come into use, although the entire 
north slope, and half of the south slope of the roof, 
Avere of wood. 

Previous to 1850 there were comparatively few 
greenhouses in the country, and, naturally, there were 
no extensive builders. Among the first to engage in tiie 
business was Frederic A. Lord, who erected his first 
houses in Buffalo, in 1855. In 1870 he removed to 
Irvington, and in 1872 entered into partnership Avith 
W. A. Buniham, under the firm name of Lord & 
Burnhain. In 1883 tha firm of Loid & Burnham Co. was 



HISTOKY OF GREENHOUSES. 5 

incorporatGcl. The earlier houses erected by ibis firm 
were, for tbe most part, m tbe curvilinear style, whicli, 
in a slightly modified form, is still used by them for 
large conservatories. 

In 1888 the firms of Hitchings & Co. , and of Thos. 
W. Weathered's Sons, both of New Yorli City, who for 
many years had been engaged in greenhouse heating, 
added departments for greenhouse construction, John 
C, Moninger, of Chicago, is one of the best known build- 
ers in the West. The systems of construction used by 
the three first mentioned firms are much alike, their 
better houses being put up with iron sills, posts, rafters, 
purlins, etc., while the sash bars are of cypress, although 
many of their commercial establishments have no iron 
in their construction. 

The puttyleoS glazing systems have been but little 
used, except in large conservatories. The principal 
firms controlling them are the Plenty Horticultural 
Works of New York City, and A. Edgecomb Rendle & Co. 
of Philadelphia and Chicago, each of whom have been 
in business for some ten years, and have erected a num- 
ber of large establishments. They also use the wooden 
sash bars and putty glazing. Nearly every large city 
has one or more dealers in structural iron work, who have 
taken up greenhouse construction. Most of them use 
galvanized iron, with or without a steel core, for sash 
bars. The use of iron for the rafters and sash bars of 
fixed roofs, has been quite general in England for eighty 
years, as its permanency is tiiere thought to more than 
counterbalance the extra expense, breakage of glass, loss 
of heat, drip and leakage, with this system, as compared 
with wooden supports. In this country the winters are 
much more severe, and, tjio conditions being less favor- 
able for iron roofs, their use is not regarded with favor 
by commercial florists. 

We have no description of the furnaces used by Dr. 
Cans, in his orangery, but Evelyn tells us that the Chel- 



6 OREENTHOUSi: CONSTRrcTlOJf. 

sea greenhouse was heated by an open cliarcoal fire built 
in a hole in the ground. Later on, a chimney was car- 
ried through the greenhouse, and this developed into 
the greenhouse flue, Avhich is still in use. Although 
steam was tried for heating greenhouses, in the last 
quarter of the eighteenth century, it was not much used 
until about 1816, when, for twenty years, it was in high 
favor, but was superseded by hot water, which, in turn, 
has, during the last few years, been crowded out, in 
large plants, by steam. 



CHAPTER ir. 

DIFFERENT FORMS OF GREENHOUSES. 

While the various glass structures are generally dis- 
tinguished according to their uses, as rose houses, palm 
houses, stove houses, graperies, etc., for our present pur- 
pose it will be well to first consider them from the build- 
ers' standpoint, as lean-to, span roof, three-quarter span, 
and curvilinear houses. These names have been api)lied 
from the various shapes that may be given to the houses. 
While any of these forms of houses may be used for all 
purposes, each one of them is particularly adapted for 
the growing of certain plants, and as they each have 
their special advantages and disadvantages, they should 
have careful consideration. 

SPAX ROOF HOUSES. 

The form of glass structure which has come to be 
known as the span roof is, more properly, the "even 
span," as the lean-to may be considered a "half span" 
house, while we also have "two-third" and ''three- 
quarter span" houses. The typical "even span" house 



DIFFERENT FORMS OF GREENHOUSES. 7 

is generally from nine to twelve, or from eighteen to 
twenty feet wide, with side walls from four to five feet 
high. The two slopes of the roof are of the same extent, 
and are arranged at the same angle, usually between 
thirty and thirty-five degrees, which will bring the ridge, 
in a house twenty feet wide, about ten feet above the 
walk, in a liouse with walls four feet high, and the roof 
at an angle of thirty degrees, and eleven feet high, when 
it has a slope of thirty-five degrees. 

In a house of this size, it is desirable to have, at 
least, two rows of ventilating sash, which may be on 
either side of the ridge, or, if three rows are used, one 




FIG. 5. EVEN SPAN GREENHOUSES. 

may be located at the ridge and the others in the side 
walls. The amount of ventilation desirable will, of 
course, be determined largely by the plants to be grown 
in the house. 

Although less simple in construction than the lean-to, 
they have a far greater variety of uses, and are much 
more frequently erected. In fact, nearly all the houses 
constructed for commercial purposes, prior to 1885, 
were of what is known as the even span style (Fig. 5). 



"8 GJREENHOUSE CONSTKUCTION. 

For ordinary growing houses for a commercial florist, 
this form is as good as can be secured, althougli for 
forcing houses the three-quarter span is preferable. One 
of the special advantages of these houses is that they 
may be run at almost any direction that the location 
may necessitate. Witli this form of roof, the benches 
can be placed at the same height, and the plants will 
still be near the glass, while in other forms of roof, with 
the same pitch, the ridge will be much higher. 

The even span houses are usually run north and 
south, as this not only brings the plants, on both sides 
of the houses, into full sunshine during a part of the 
day, but better than any otlier direction, or any other 
kind of a house, provides for a perfect distribution of 
the rays of light and heat upon all sides of the plants. 
For many purposes the east and west arrangement, with 
one side facing the south, is preferable, as, during the 
four hours of the day when the sun's rays are most pow- 
erful, they strike at right angles to the glass, and are 
but little obstructed by the sash bars ; while, were the 
houses running north and south, more than half the 
rays would be cut off between eleven and one o'clock, 
and, as this part of the day is particularly valuable in 
the forcing house, this arrangement is preferable for 
them. The beneficial effects, however, will be confined 
to about two-thirds of the house, on the side towards 
the sun, while the other side will have much less sun 
than were it in a house running north and south. If 
designed as growing houses, this might not be objection- 
able, as the north side could be used for ferns, violets, 
or for plants at rest, which do fully as well in i)artial 
shade. 

The fact that the north third of the house is of little 
value for forcing purposes, led, in part, to the construc- 
tion of the first forms of two-third and three-quarter 
span houses, Avhich, so far as the slope of the roof is 



DIFFERENT FORMS OF GREENHOUSES. 9 

concerned, did not, differ from the even span, tlic only 
difference being that the back wall was run np at a point 
which cut off the north third or fourtli of the house. 
Everything else being equal, the loss of heat from a span 
roof house will be somewhat greater than from either a 
lean-to, or uneven span house, especially if it, like the 
others, runs east and west, on account of its having a 
greater area of glass ujion its north side. In the lean-to 
there is no glass at all on the north side, while, in the 
three-quarter span house, the glass area on the north side 
will only be one-half as great as in the even span. 

The even span houses may vary in width, from nine 
to twenty-four feet outside. For the narrow houses 
only one walk, situated in the center, with a beach on 
each side (See Fig. 59), is used. When the walk is two 
feet wide there will be room for two tables, each three and 
one-half feet in width. These widths may be increased 
to four feet for the beds, and two feet six inches for the 
walk, if necessary, but twelve feet would be the extreme 
width that could be used with comfort, when a house 
with a single walk is to be used for most greenhouse 
crops, especially if they are grown in jiots. When two 
walks are used, the houses would need to be increased 
to a width of, at least, sixteen feet, and, for some pur- 
poses, may be as much as twenty-four feet, which will 
be as wide as will probably be used under any circum- 
stances. A medium width, however, is preferable, and 
the greatest economy of space and comfort, in caring 
for the houses, will be obtained, when the houses are 
not less than eighteen feet, nor more than twenty, out- 
side measurement. 

While liouses are often built with walks as narrow 
as eighteen inches, it is better to allow two feet, in com- 
mercial growing houses, and in private houses a width 
of two and one-half feet for walks, Avill not be too great. 
For the side benches, three feet and six inches will be 



10 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 



fl 



in 



a^ 



-S3- 




FIG. (J. GROUND PLAN AND END ELEVATION OF RIDGE 
AND FURROW HOUSES. 



telDGE AND FUKEOW HOUSfA 11 

found a couveuient width, although four feet is often 
used. If tlie greatest economy of space and convenience 
of handling the plants is sought, the center bench should 
be about seven feet in width. They are, however, often 
made as narrow as six feet, and when large plants are to 
be grown, which will make a high roof desirable, the 
width of the house may be increased to take in a 
bench ten or eleven feet in width. 

KIDGE AND FURROVv" HOUSES, 

The even span form of roof lias one advantage that 
is possessed by no other (except by the short span to the 
south, or the three-quarter span on a sidehill), as they 
admit of the ridge and furrow construction, as it is com- 
monly called. This should, however, be distinguished 
from the ridge and furrow form used in England by >Sir 
Joseph Paxton and others, in which the roof was broken 
up into a great number of ridges, and furrows run up 
the main slope of the roof. 

The principal gain is due to the fact, as shown in 
Fig. 6, that when, say five, houses are built in this way, 
only six walls will be required, and four of these can be 
of light, cheap construction, instead of the ten well-built 
walls that would be necessary were the houses built 
separately. Another advantage, which should not be 
overlooked, is due to the fact that there will be only one- 
fifth as much exposed wall surface, and that, when built 
thus close together, one house on each side Avill protect 
the otliers from the high, cold winds that come from 
that direction. There will also be a considerable saving: 
in space, which will be worth considerable, especially in 
cities. 

Among the disadvantages of the ridge and furrow 
style of houses, is the shading of the center houses dur- 
ing the morning and afternoon, by those on either side, 
by which, especially in the case of wide, high houses, 



12 GREEKHOtrSE COXSTRUCTIOX. 

niucli li<;lit and heat is shut off; also tlio fact that wlion 
houses arc l)iiilt in this way, side light and side venlila- 
tion cannot be secured. While this is not even desira- 
ble for some crops, for others it is quite necessary, and 
whether crops are to be selected that are ada})ted to the 
liouscs, or houses are to be erected that are to be suited to 
the growing of certain crops, this should be understood. 
It may be laiil down as a rule that, aside from the 
economy of erection, heating, etc., better results will ])o 
obtained from wide houses, if they are built with inter- 
vals of, at least, fifteen feet between them ; but wlien 
the erection of the extra walls, and the increase in fuel 
and land are considered, for tlie ordinary florist, even 
span houses, of a width of twenty feet or less, should be 
erected upon this plan, unless other special reasons might 
exist. In sections where the snowfall is heavy, the s:ut- 
ters Avill become filled, and, as the snow cannot slide 
from the roof, with long houses, unless tliey are narrow, 
and only built with three houses in a section, to allow of 
the snow being thrown over the roofs of the side houses, 
this will be a serious objection to the plan. For the 
growing of small bedding plants, mignonette, helio- 
trope, carnations, and for propagating houses, this 
form of construction, with houses twelve feet wide, will 
be quite satisfactory. Of course, any plants can be 
grown in them, but a wider house seems preferable for 
roses, carnations, lettuce, and for most forcing crops, 
particularly as the amount of air enclosed is greater in 
proportion to the amount of exposed glass surface, on 
which account the temperature can be easier regulated, 
and drafts of air prevented. 

THE LEAN-TO HOUSE. 

When it is desirable that the first cost shall be as 
small as possible, and if the expense for fuel, ratlier than 
the crops grown in the house, is considered, the lean-to 



THE LEAN-TO HOUSE. 



13 



form, particularly if the structure is to be a small one, 
will be found of value. An idea of the shape of the 
house, and the reason for the name, can be obtained 
from Fig. 7. If the house can be built against the 
south wall of a building, or against a steep sidehill, 
these will be additional reasons, as affecting the cost of 
erection and beating, for using this form of construction. 
On the other hand, this shape for a greenhouse has, per- 




FiG. 7. LEAN-TO HOUSE {Oross Sectio7i). 

haps, more and greater objections than any other. One 
serious fault is that for three hours in the forenoon, and 
an equal period in the afternoon, the i)lants get little or 
no direct sunlight ; another objection is that the light 
that they do get, coming all from the south side, is une- 
qually distributed upon the plants, and the leaves are all 
turned in that direction, thus giving the plants an uneven 
appearance. 

As grape or peach houses, the lean-to construction 
answers very well, and, where one has a wall that can be 



14 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION, 

utilized, the expense for building and heating will be 
very small. A lean-to, with its roof sloi)ing to the north, 
answers very well as a propagating house. One of the 
simplest ways of building one is to place it against the 
north wall of a three-quarter span house, or by building 
an even span house twenty-five feet wide, and cutting 
off six and one-half feet on the north side, thus forming, 
on one side, what is known as a north side propagating 
house (See Fig. 61), and on the other a three-quarter 
span forcing house. As a small house for an amateur, 
quite satisfactory results can be obtained from a lean-to, 
but a span roof house is to be preferred. 

For the forcing of vegetables, the growers of lettuce 
at Arlington, Mass., and vicinity, use wide houses con- 
structed on the lean-to plan (See Fig, 83), and they give 
excellent satisfaction. As a rule, lean-to houses are 
built with a wall from four to six feet high, and w^ith a 
roof of a width in proportion to the width of the house ; 
but they are sometimes built quite narrow, with a low 
wall, just high enough to allow of bottom ventilation, 
from which the side sash rises at an angle of from forty- 
five to sixty degrees, to a height of eight or nine feet, 
Avith a narrow ventilator connecting the top with the 
back wall, A good idea of the form of this house can 
be obtained from Fig. 97, The principal use of a nar- 
row lean-to of this kind, would be as a cold grape or 
peach house. 

In a general way, the construction of a lean-to house 
would be the same as of half of a span roof house, and, 
so far as the building of these houses is concerned, they 
will be treated under the same headings, and will receive 
no further consideration as distinct houses, 

SIDEHILL HOUSES, 

A modified form of lean-to, which combines its 
advantages with those of the three-quarter span house, 



SIDEHILL HOUSES. 



15 



is sometimes known as the sidehill house. W. C. 
Strong, of Massachusetts, erected a house of this kind at 
Brighton, and was well pleased with it. Otlier smaller 
houses have since been erected, and, for vegetable forc- 
ing, have given excellent satisfaction. A good idea of 
the construction of the houses can be obtained from 
Fig. 8. Tliej should be located upon a hillside which 
has a slope towards the south of about twenty-five de- 
grees. Each section should consist of a lean-to structure 
of any desired width, from ten to twenty-five feet. The 
south wall is built the same as for any greenhouse, and, 
for a structure fifteen feet wide, posts should be placed 




FIG. 8. SIDEHILL HOUSES {Section). 



in the ground, as at a, for the north wall ; a gutter 
should be placed upon them, and this will answer for 
the south gutter of the adjoining house. The sash bars 
should be laid at the same angle as the slope of the hill, 
against a ridge, g, which should be about two by four 
inches, as should the sides of the gutters, e. 

The ridge is supported by braces about two by four 
inches, which are placed at intervals of two and one-half 



16 GREENHOUSE COXSTKUCTTON'. 

feet, as is shown at h. The ventilators, tlie constrnction 
of "which is sliown at d, arc of wood, and will be found 
convenient to walk n])on in removing the snow and 
making repairs, otherwise tliey could be of glass, if pre- 
ferred. The benches may be arranged as is most con- 
venient, the method shown in Fig. 8 being an excellent 
one. The heating pipes may be arranged along the sides 
of the walks, but should be so distributed that the lower 
houses will have their share of the heat. 

In Europe, houses of this form are very commonly 
used, and vegetables of all kinds are grown out of season, 
in much the same way as in the open air. Hundreds 
and thousands of acres are thus covered v/ith glass, and 
the profits of a quarter of an acre are sometimes more 
than from the best hundred acres used in general farming. 



CHAPTEK III. 

THREE-QUARTER SPAN HOUSES. 

As previously stated, the first form of three-quarter 
span house was the same as three-quarters of an even 
span structure, but the shape of the roof has been 
somewhat modified, so that the plants will be nearer the 
glass. The cost of building these houses is about the 
same as for an even span, but owing to the fact that the 
north wall is from six to eight feet high, there will be 
less loss of heat from the north side of the roof, and the 
south pitch of the roof will take in more of the light 
and heat rays, than would be the case with a span roof 
house. 

The three-quarter span houses may be likened to a 
lean-to house with the peak of the roof cut off. In the 
lean-to the heat tends to rise into the angle of the roof, 



THREE-QUARTER SPAIS' HOUSES. 



17 



and hence is not evenly distributed, but in the three- 
quarter and even span houses there is less trouble from 
this. The three-quarter span houses always run east 
and west, and the north slope of the roof allows the light 
to fall on the plants from all sides, so that the growth of 
the plants will be stronger and more symmetrical. It is 
the south slope that is principally relied upon to trap 
the light and heat of the sun, and the angle at which 
the glass is arranged is that which will be nearest at 
right angles to the sun's rays during the winter months. 
This form of house is particularly adapted to the 
forcing of roses, and of all other plants that need a max- 
imum amount of light for their development. In Fig. 9 




FIG. 9. THREE-QUARTER SPAN HOUSE [Section). 



will be seen the usual form of forcing house of the three- 
quarter span style. For adapting it to different crops, 
the height of the Avails, the slope and length of the sash 
bars, and the width and height of the benches, can be 
varied at pleasure. As a general rule, the three-quarter 
span houses are from sixteen to twenty feet wide ; the 
south wall is from four to five feet high, and the north 
one from six to eight feet. The south pitch of the roof 
% 



18 GREENUOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 

varies from twenty-six to thirty-five degrees, and the 
north one from thirty-five to sixty-five degrees. 

The side benches are each about three feet wide, 
and arc phiced about one and one-half feet below the 
l)lates. The center bench may be single (Fig. G3), with 
a slope to the south, or double, as shown in Fisf. 9, with 
a narrow walk between the two parts. This style of 
house is also largely used for lettuce forcing, and for 
this purjiose the width is sometimes increased to thirty- 
five feet. 

CURVILINEAR ROOFS. 

• In tliis construction the sash bars are more or less 
curved, with the idea that, at all times of the day, some 
of tlie glass will be at right angles to tlie sun's rays. 
This, of course, is secured, but the result of the curved 
sash bars is to decrease the angle at which the rays strike 
a majority of the panes, so that, after all, the curvilinear 
construction is an injury, rather than a benefit. The 
old style of curved roof had the sash bars leaving the 
plate in nearly a vertical direction, and with most of the 
curve in the lower third of the roof. As a result, the 
upi)er half of the roof approached the horizontal, and 
made a very small angle with the sun's rays, especially 
dui-ing tlie winter. The present form of curvilinear 
roof has a more regular curve, and, as shown in Fig. 10, 
is less objectionable. Whatever the material used, the 
cost of the framework for a curvilinear house is consid- 
erably more tlian for a straiglit roofed house. If, for 
glazing the roof, glass bent to the proper angle is used, 
the cost will be much more than for straight glass. 
Ordinary sheet glass can, of coui-se, be used uiwn curvi- 
linear roofs, but, especially u]H)n the old form of roof, 
comparatively short panes must be used. 

To many persons the curve is a '"line of beauty," 
and a curvilinear liouse has a more ornate and finished 



CURVILINEA.R ROOFS. 



19 




20 GREENHOUSE CONSTltUCTION. 

appearance than one with straight sash bars and, in pri- 
vate and public parks, where the increased cost is not 
considered an objection, and where the houses would be 
an ornamental feature of the landscape, curvilinear 
houses have their place. This form of roof is also quite 
desirable for large conservatories, although a roof made 
with straight sash bars can be so broken up as to relieve 
it of any barn-like appearance. The curvilinear con- 
struction can be used in lean-to, even span, or tliree- 
([uarter span houses, but for the reasons given is not 
particularly desirable in any form of low, narrow houses, 
and, in fact, it is generally admitted that better plants 
can be grown in houses with straight sash bars. 

Some twenty years ago the curved construction was 
in very common use in England, but the general verdict 
seems to be expressed by a writer,* who says, ''Taken 
as a whole, circular work may, in a few excej^tional 
instances, be introduced to obtain an architectural result, 
or in molding the lines of a large winter garden or mag- 
nificent palm house, but for ordinary growing purposes, 
we may consider curvilinear roofs not so suitable as those 
com[)Osed of straight lines." As a result of this belief, 
tlic curved roofs are no longer in favor, and few such 
are being erected to-day. 

*Fa\vkes, Horticultural IJuildiiigs, P. 54. 



CHAPTER IV. 

LOCATION AND ARRANGEMENT. 

When erected in connection witli some otlier build- 
ing, the aspect and slope cannot always be regulated ; 
but, if possible, greenhouses for most purposes should 
be on the south side, so that no rays from either east or 
west will be cut off. For a lean-to or a three-quarter 
span house the wall or building against which they are 
erected should run east and west, and an even span house 
should, in this case, run north and south, with its north 
end against the other structure. 

For the location of detached houses, if thorough 
drainage can be secured, a level spot is not objectionable ; 
while, if it is at the top of a south and westerly slope, 
all the better, as there the sun can get in extra hours at 
both ends of the day. In case the land on the most 
available site is not level, it should be graded, in case it 
can be done without too great expense. A slope of per- 
haps one or two inches in fifty feet, to carry off the 
water from the gutters, is not objectionable, and, while 
it is preferable that each house should be practically 
level, if the land selected cannot be readily graded so as 
to bring all of the houses upon the same level, there will 
be no serious objection to having the houses ranged, one 
above the other, in regular tiers. For sidehill houses a 
decided slope is necessary. In locating the houses, 
means of thorough drainage, particularly for the boiler 
room, should be the first desideratum. In arranging a 
group of houses, the width and height of the different 
structures, and the shape of the roofs, will have much 

21 



22 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 

to do iu determining their exact locution. Unless 
arranged in ridge and fnrrow style, a space of twelve or 
fifteen feet between the iiousos is desirable. The lean-to 
and three-quarter span houses may be })laeed in parallel 
lines running east and west, and the even span houses 
may run in either direction. Besides having them so 
located as not to shade one another, to prevent side ven- 
tilation, or, if desirable, driving between them with a 
horse and cart, they should be as near together as is pos- 
sible, in order to save land, and for convenience and 
economy in heating and operating the houses. 

The convenience of arrangement assists, to a won- 
derful extent, in the performance of the greenhouse 
work. The potting and workrooms should be centrally 
located, well lighted, and in every way convenient for 
the work, and in commercial establishments the packing- 
room should be so situated as to facilitate getting up the 
orders. In retail establishments, when the salesroom is 
in connection with the greenhouse, it should be conven- 
iently located for the customers, and should be fitted up 
with counter, glass show cases, refrigerator and other 
necessary furniture. Fig. 7G. If properly arranged, with 
the wire designs upon wall hooks, the baskets and simi- 
lar supplies in glass cases, in fact, with a place for every- 
thing, and everything in its place, the salesroom will be 
attractive to customers and visitors, while its conven- 
ience, and the arrangements for preserving the flowers 
and supplies, will soon repay all expense. We believe 
the above equipment to be almost a necessity in a prop- 
erly conducted business, and if there is a large retail 
trade at the greenhouse, some attempt at decoration, 
both in tlie salesroom, and in one house to be used in 
whole or in part as a showroom, cannot fail to attract 
visitors, and this will increase the trade. 

In locating the various workrooms for a large estab- 
lishment, ic is well to have them in the center, with the 



LOCATION AND AEKANGEMENT. 23 

houses running out from both sides, east and west. A 
similar arrangement for the heating plant is also desira- 
ble ; thus, rather than have the boiler room at one end 
of a long raiige of houses, the boiler house could be 
placed in the center, and houses of half the length 
arranged on each side, and better results obtained. A 
very convenient arrangement for the heating plant is 
shown in an engraving of F. R. Pierson's range of rose 
houses, in Chapter Twenty-two, in which four houses, 
each one hundred and fifty feet long, are supplied from 
a boiler house so located that the extreme ends of the 
houses are but little more than one hundred and fifty 
feet away, instead of being over three hundred feet, as 
would be the case were the boilers located at the end of 
the range. Of course, with houses of one hundred to 
one hundred and fifty feet, such an arrangement would 
not be desirable. In many establishments it would be 
convenient to widen the connecting passage-way, and 
use it for potting, packing and like purposes. For a rose 
forcing house, the potting and packing rooms need not 
be as large nor as centrally located as for an ordinary 
commercial establishment. In large private establish- 
ments, the palm house is generally the central figure, 
around which the others are grouped. For a small 
range the one shown in Fig. 100 is Avell planned, while 
that in Fig. 106 has as many merits as a large one. 



CHAPTER V. 

GREENHOUSE WALLS. 

In erecting greenhouses, too little attention is nsu- 
ally paid to the construction of the walls. Not only 
should their durability be secured, but the heaving by 
the frost, and the lateral pressure of the roof, should be 
guarded against. Owing to a lack of foresight regarding 
some of these points, one seldom sees a greenhouse with 
five years' service that is in a satisfactory condition. 
Greenhouse walls are constructed of wood, brick, stone 
or grout, or of a combination of two of these materials. 
Each of these methods of construction has its advocates, 
but each of them has some disadvantages. 

MASONRY WALLS. 

The use of stone or grout (cement, sand and cobble- 
stones), for the construction of the foundation of brick 
walls, IS very common, and, as they make a durable wall, 
would, no doubt, be largely used for the walls up to 
the plates, were it not that they are rapid conductors of 
heat. In small greenhouses, where the grade can be 
carried up to the plate, so that none of the wall is ex- 
posed to the outside air, they make excellent walls. 

The excavation should be to a depth of three feet 
below the proposed outside grade level, and of a width 
to admit of a fifteen or eighteen inch footing course. 
This should occupy the trench up to the level of the 
interior of the house, at any rate, and even if brick or 
otiier material is used for the upper part of the wall, 
may extend to the level of the ground outside, which is 

24 



Masonry walls. 



S5 



often from two to five feet above that of the interior. 
Stone conducts heat quite rapidly, and for that reason 
■will not be desirable as a wall above ground, unless made 
very thick. This objection does not hold to the same 
extent with grout, and where small stones can be readily 
obtained, it makes a cheap and very durable wall. For 
a house not over twenty-five feet wide, and when less 
than five feet in height, a wall of 
grout twelve inches thick will answer. 
This should rest on an eighteen inch 
footing course of the same material. 
The materials required are, stones 
from two to four inches in diameter, 
gravel, and water lime, of Louisville 
or a similar brand. 

In making the wall, a box of the 
desired width is made by driving 
stakes along the line of the wall, on 
each side, and setting up twelve inch 
planks for the sides of the box. In 
this a layer of stones is placed, which 
should be packed in carefully, and 
kept, at least, one-half inch away 
from the planks. The cement is then 
prepared by thoroughly mixing one 
part with three parts of gravel, and 
then adding water enough to thor- 
oughly moisten it. The best results 
are obtained, if it is of about the same 
consistency us ordinary lime mortar. The water should' 
not be added until the cement has been mixed with the 
gravel. A layer of cement from two to three inches 
thick, over the stones, will be sufficient ; this should be 
well tamped down, filling all of the space between the 
stones. Another layer of stones and cement can then be 
added, and the process repeated until the box is filled. 




26 



GREKNITOUSE OONSTRUCTIOX. 



requii'ilig iil)out tlireo layers. One wall of the huuso can 
be built at a time, altlioug-li if ])laul<s are at hand it Avill 
be well to allow oiio wall to set while a course is being 
put in on another. After the grout has been setting for 
five or six honr;^, the phinks can be raised their own 
width, and the box will thus be prepared for another 
course. In this v/ay a wall of any desired height can be 
built, which will be found quite 
durable and in every way satisfac- 
tory. The appearance of the Avail 
can be improved if, after the last 
course lias been put on, the ex- 
WrfC ' \H ])osed surface is given a thin coat 

r-Jl?f I l^ of Portland cement mortar. If 

desired, the surface can be laid off 
into squares, resembling blocks of 
sandstone. The appearance of a 
wall built entirely of grout is 
shown in Pig. 11, wliilc Fig. 12 
shows a wall half grout and half 
Avood. 

BRICK A\^\LLS. 

Unless the very best materials 
are used in their construction, the 
greenhouse Avails constructed of 
brick will be com])aratively short- 
GKOUT AKD Jived, as the combined action of 
AVOODEN AVALL. moisturc and frost Avill disinte- 
grate the mortar, and cause the outer tier of bricks to 
crumble. Hard burned bricks should be selected, and 
the best Louisville, or, better yet, Portland cement mor- 
tar, should be used. Whatever the tliickness of the 
wall, there should be, at least, one air space, to prevent 
radiation of h.eat. This will also tend to render the wall 
more dui'able, by preventing the capillary passage of the 




FIG. 12. 



WOODEN WALLS. 



27 



moisture. Fur all low walls, two tiers of brick, with a 
one-inch air space, making a nine-inch wall, will answer ; 
these should be firmly tied together every fourth course 
vertically, and every three or four bricks along the walls, 
Fig. 13. A post once in eight feet will strengthen the 
wall, and prevent tlie plates from spreading. For heavy 
or wide structures, or if the wall is high, a third tier of 
bricks on the inside, one-half, or, 
perhaps, two-thirds the height of the 
wall, will serve to strengthen it. 
Fig. 14 shows the construction of 
such a wall, as used with an iron sill. 

WOODEN WALLS. 

Probably nine-tenths of the 
present greenhouses are constructed 
with what might be called post and 
board walls. In their erection, the 
po?ts used should be of some durable 
material, such as red cedar, locust 
or cypress, and the size should vary 
from four by four inches for low 
walls and narrow houses, to six by 
six inches for high walls and wide 
houses. The posts should be seven 
to eight feet in length, except on the 
back side of three - qi^arter span 
houses, where a length of ten or 
twelve feet will be necessary, which 
will allow of their being set three 
feet in the ground for the front wall, and four feet for 
the rear one. The posts should be placed in a straight 
line, about four feet apart, and unless the ground is 
quite firm and solid, it is well to place a flat stone under 
the post, and fill up the hole around "t with grout. This 
will not only hold the post firmly in place, but it will 




FIG. 13. 

BKICK WALL WITH 

WOODEN SILL. 



28 



GREENHOUSE COKSTRUCTION. 



have a tendency to preserve it. The durability of the 
posts can also be increased by charring the lower end, 
and then soaking it in crude petroleum. A coat of coal 
tar would be better than the petroleum, biit it should 
never be used about a greenhouse, as it will be injurious 
to the plants. 

The posts should tiien be sheathed upon the outside, 
for which purpose a fair grade of matched lumber is 




FIG. 14. BRICK WALL WITH IRON SILL. 

desirable, although any kind of culled lumber will answer 
(Fig. 15). It will always pay to cover tlie sheathing 
with some kind of heavy building paper, avoiding all 
brands that contain tar. For the outer covering the 
novelty or patent siding will be found preferable to ordi- 
nary clapboards. For rose and stove houses it may pay, 



PLATES AND GUTTERS. 



29 



in exposed localities, to ceil up the posts on the inside ; 
but if this is done it will be best not to pack the enclosed 
space with sawdust or similar material. This course 
was recommended for many years, but, in practice, it 
was found that the packing absorbed 
moisture and caused a rapid decay of the 
wall. ]n ceiling up the inside of the 
posts, tight joints should be made, that 
will exclude mice ; otherwise, the en- 
closed space ijiay become a harboring 
place for them, and thus prove a greater 
injury than benefit. When used for 
growing roses and other tall plants, that 
require the bed to be situated at least two 
feet below the plate, it is well to have a 
row of sash m each of the side walls (Fig. 
16). If houses run east and west, a row 
along the south side will answer, although 
one on the north side will be of advant- 
age ; in north and south houses the sash 
should be placed in both sides. In nar- 
row houses they may he fastened perma- 
nently, but, if the houses are wide, it will fig. 15. 
be advisable to have, at least, a part of wooden wall. 
them on hinges, so that they can be opened if found 
necessary (Fig. 50). 




PLATES AND GUTTERS. 

The wall plates may be placed level, on the top of 
the walls, as in Fig. 12, or they may be at the same 
angle as the roof. As a rule, two-inch lumber is heavy 
enough, although if a gutter is desired for catching the 
roof-water, strips may be nailed to it, as shown in Fig. 
12. Another method of arranging the gutter is shown 
in Fig. 16. Whichever method is chosen, the posts, 
where wooden walls are used, should all be cut off at 



30 



GEEENHOUSE CONSTKUCTIOJS". 




the same angle, and the plate securely fastened in place. 
The arrangement shown in Fig, 16 is the neatest and 
best, and the same form of plate, without the gutter, 
can be used when one does not desire the latter. The 
form illustrated in Fig. 12 will be a cheap and satisfac- 
tory method of arranging the gutter, while that shown 
in Fig. 15 is, perhaps, the cheapest and easiest way of 
making a plate when a gutter is not 
desired, "When the under side of 
the plate is level there should be a 
small groove near each edge, to pre- 
vent the water from working back 
into, or down the wall. 

In some cases a wooden wall 
built in exactly the same way as the 
wall of a dwelling house, is preferred 
to the "post and board" wall. For 
this a foundation of stone, brick or 
grout, extending to the outside 
grade line, is necessary, and an ex- 
cellent plan is to have two, or even 
'three feet of the wall below this 
level, with a corresponding excava- 
tion for the house, necessitating the 
erection of a wooden wall of the 
u.-^ — -"^ same height above. In this way the 

FIG. 16. wooDEK exposed surface is greatly reduced, 
WALL "vviTH GLASS and a durable and warm wall will be 
SIDE. eecured. The sill for this wall 

should be two by four-inch scantling, with studding of 
the same size, placed two feet apart.. The sides and top 
can be arranged in the same manner as when posts are 
used (Fig. 13). If there is danger of lateral ])ressurc, 
the sills should be securely anchored to the foundation. 
This form of wall is princii)ally desirable for narrow 
houses, and where side ventilation is not needed. 




IROlSr POSTS AND SILLS. 



31 



IROlSr POSTS AND SILLS. 

Although wood is now almost universally used in 
the construction of commercial houses, many of the 
more enterprising florists are employing iron and steel 
in such portions of tlie house as do not form a part of 
the exterior, particularly for 
posts, sills, purlins and ridge. 

One of the simplest and 
best arrangements of this 
kind was used by Lord & 
Burnham Co., in the con- 
struction of a range of rose 
houses for F. E. Pierson, at 
Scarborough, N. Y. (For 
views and sections of these 
houses see Figs. 78 and 79.) 
The posts and rafters on each 
side were made from one 
piece of four by one-half inch 
bar iron, bent at the gutter- 
line, so that when the lower 
end was vertical, to form the 
post, the other would be at 
the proper angle for the raf- 
ter. The post end was placed 
in an excavation three feet 
deep, resting on a flat stone, fig. 17. iron post and 
and the hole was filled up sill, with side yenti- 
with grout. The upper end lation. 

of the rafter was securely bolted to its companion from 
the other side, by means of an iron bracket. In some 
cases an iron ridge of the same size of the rafters is used, 
to which the rafters are fastened by means of angle 
brackets. 

The wall may be constructed in various ways, one of 
which, illustrated in Fig. 9, will answer well for rose 




'l \ 







32 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 

houses. If desired, tlie entire wall beneath the plate 
may be of wood, although the glass will generally be 
found desirable. It will be noticed that the wooden por- 
tions of the wall are bolted to the posts by means of 
small iron lugs (Fig. 17). 

The form of post used by Hitchings & Co. is rather 
more elaborate and ornamental than the above. It con- 
sists of a cast iron post base below ground, to which the 
T iron wall post is bolted. The rafter is then bolted to 
the top of the wall post by means of an ornamental iron 
bracket. In the more elaborate conservatories, with a 
brick or masonry wall, an iron sill. Fig. 17, is used (a 
similar sill of iron can also be used upon the top of a 
wooden post if desired), to which the lower end of the 
rafters is fastened by iron lugs. , 

This IS the best form of construction now in use, 
and when ready capital is at hand for the erection of 
good houses, it will be found most economical in the 
end. As a second choice, one of the forms of iron posts, 
with a wall of wood, could be used. Even if the wooden 
wall does decay, the posts, rafters and purlins will still 
remain, forming a stiff and firm framework, which would 
still support the superstructure. As a rule, the board 
at the bottom will decay first, and if this is so put in 
that it can be easily taken out and renewed, the wall can 
bo kept m repair for a long series of years at a small 
expense. 



CHAPTER VI. 

CONSTRUCTION OF THE. ROOF. 

The portion of the house to which the most atten- 
tion is paid, are tlie strips supporting the glass. There 
are dozens of patent sash bars, and methods of glazing, 
and yet the old wooden sash bar is still preferred by the 
commercial florist, while the sash bars m some of the 
best modern houses are identical in size and shape with 
those in use thirty years ago. Although tlie glazing 
should be so tight that no water can pass through into 
the house, there will be more or less condensed moisture 
on the under side of the glass, and to prevent drip as 
much as possible, it is well to have them with drip gut- 
ters on each side. Some florists, however, prefer not to 
have them. 

Ordinary white pine makes a good sasn bar, and, if 
kept well painted, will be found quite durable. The 
southern cypress, however, is generally preferred. It is 
straight grained, rather more durable than white pine 
under the best of care, and much more so if they are 
neglected. Cypress is also stronger and stiifer than 
white pine, and the sash bars can be made rather smaller 
on that account. For use with lapped glass, the best 
form of sash bar, if drip gutters are wanted, is shown at 
Fig. 18, while, if the drip gutters are not desired, a good 
form is shown in Fig. 19. When glass from fourteen to 
eighteen inches wide is used, the roof sash bars should 
be from one and one-eighth by two inches to one and 
one-fourth by two and one-lialf inches, according to the 
distance between the purlins. The rabbets for the glass 
3 33 



34 



GREENHOLSE CONSTRUCTION. 



should be about lialf an inch deep and five-sixteenths of 
an inch wide. The verdcal sash bars for the sides and 
ends slioukl be about one and one-eightli by one and 





FIG. 18. SASH BAR AVITH 

DRIP GUTTERS {Section). 



FIG. 10. PLAIN SASH 

BAR {Section). 



seven-eighths inches, the rabbet being of tbe same size 
as for the roof sash bars. For butted glass, whether used 
with or without glazing strips, either of the above forms 




J^iU. 20. FIG. 'Zl. FIG. Z'Z. 

SASH BARS FOK BUTTED GLASS. 

(Figs. 18 and 19) may be used. The patterns shown in 
Figs. 20, 21 and 22 are, however, preferable for this kind 
of glazing. The sash bars (1) there shown are practically 
alike, and the difference lies principally in the form of 



PORTABLE EOOF. 



35 



the caps (2), those shown in Figs. 20 and 21 being, per- 
haps, preferable. In Fig. 23 is shown a f(n-ni of sasli 
bar without drip gutters, for use with butted ghiss. 

As a rule, tlie lumber working factories do not have 
machinery for working (sticking) the drip grooves, and 
it will be necessary to obtain them from some firm deal- 
ing in green- 
house material. 
There are several 
large concerns 
who deal in cy- 
press, and f 11 r- 
nish everything 
required in the 
construction, in- 
cluding gutters, 
ridge, plates, 
rafters, sash 
bars, ventilating 
sash, doors, etc*, 
all cut ready to 
put together. 



GLASS 




FIG. 23. 



BUT- 



PLAIK SASH BAR FOR 
TED GLASS {SectlOu). 

This will be a great help to the small florist, as he can 
secure his lumber of standard shapes and sizes, with 
plans that will enable any carpenter to put it together. 



PORTABLE ROOF. 

An old plan of construction is to make a framework 
for the roof, with two by six inch rafters and a heavy 
ridge board (Fig. 24). The roof is covered with movable 
sash, similar to hotbed sash, from three by six to four 
by eight feet in size. If the house is narrow, one sash 
on each side will cover it. The sashes may be screwed to 
the plate and ridge, and thus inake a tight roof. To se- 
cure ventilation, some of the sash may be hinged, either at 
the top, bottom, or sides, or they may be provided with 



30 



GKEENIIOUSE CONSTHL CTION. 



stops tluit will liold one end in place, Avliile tlie other is 
raised (see hotbed Fig. 85). 

in wider houses, in whicli the rafters measure more 
tlian eiglit feet in length, the space between the top of 
the sash and the ridge may be coyered with a smaller 
sash, the lower edge of which laps down upon the large 
S'ish beneath. "Where two rows of sash are used in this 
way, it is customary to have all of the uj)per row hung 
on hinges (Fig. 24), althougli if they are very large, not 
more than every third one will bo required for ventilat- 
ing purposes, and the others can be screwed down. One 










FIG. 24. GREENHOUSE WITH PORTABLE ROOF. 

great objection to this kind of a house is that the rafters 
obstruct the light and heat, and as the glass used for the 
glazing of the sash is generally quite small, the sash bars 
and the sash frame will also be a serious impediment. 
"Where only one row of sash on a side is required, tiiis 
trouble can, in a measure, bo avoided, by dispensing 
Avith the rafters and fastening the sash to the ridge. 

This form of a roof is desirable wlien the houses are 
of a temporary nature, and, to a certain extent, for 
liouses in which crops are forced during a i)art of the 
winter only, as in growing hybrid perpetual roses. As 



PERMANENT SASH BARS. 37 

a rule, lio\veTer, this style of house is not only more 
expensive to build, but, for the reasons given, it is less 
desirable than houses built with 

PERMANENT SASH BARS. 

While many houses are built without rafters, the 
sash bars being all of one size, the usual forcing house 
coristriictiou is to have every fifth sash bar of the nature 
of a raster, either two by four inches, or, in large houses, 
two by five inches. The ventilators are then placed in a 
continuous row on one, or both sides of the ridge, occu- 
pying a space from fifteen to thirty inches in width, 
each sasli extending from one rafter to the next. AVlien 
this construction is used, a two by four-inch header is 
mortised into the rafters just under the lower edge of 
the ventilator, and the sash bars are fitted into this, 
at their upper end, the lower end being nailed, to tlie 
wall plate. 

Another method of arranging the sash bars with a 
continuous line of ventilators, is to have all of the sash- 
bars run from ridge to plate, thus dispensing with the 
heavy light-obstructing rafters, with short headers 
between the sash bars, instead of the long ones between 
the rafters. These short headers should be grooved to 
receive the glass on the lower side. The bars in the ven- 
tilators should be arranged directly over the sash bars, 
but even then, this method of construction is often 
objected to, as obstructing too much light at the ridge. 
This fault can, in a measure, be overcome by cutting off 
every otlier sasli bar, and supporting the headers between 
those that remain. 

A modified form of the rafter construction restricts 
the ventilators to half the length of the ridge, and 
admits of sash bars running from ridge to plate in the 
remaining sections. One of the simplest methods of 
construction is to cover the entire roof with sash bars. 



38 QREElsrHOUSE CON"STRUCTION. 

and tlien cutting off every eiglitli sasli bar four feet 
from tlio ridge, and inserting a grooved header to sup- 
port it. This will provide for a ventilating sash two to 
three feet wide, by four feet long, every eight or ten 
feet, according to the size of glass used. 

RIDGE. 

The ridge should 1)e of either one and one-half or 
two-incli stuff, and from six to eight inches deep, accord- 
ing to the size of the house and of the sash bars. 
It should have a groove for the glass on one side, in case 
there is but one line of ventilators, or on both sides if 
the ventilators are not continuous. The arrangement of 
the ridge is shown in Fig. 25. The ridge may be sur- 
mounted by a cap, and, jmrticularly if the building is a 
conservatory, an ornamental cresting, with finials at the 
extremities, should be added. Even in ease of commer- 
cial houses, their attractiveness is so much increased by 
the addition of some simple forms of scroll finials, as 
shown in Fig. 5, that the expense should not be consid- 
ered extravagant. 

DETAILS FOR ROOF. 

From Fig. 25 the details for tlio construction of an 
even span house eighteen feet wide can be obtained, and, 
witli slight modification, they can be used for any other 
form. In addition to an end view of the house, the fol- 
lowing secti'ins are shown: A side wall with gutter; 
wall with side plate; ridge and vcntihitor; purlin; 
double gutter for use when two houses are built, with a 
wall in common ; roof sash bar, and of end wall showing 
gable raftei', end sash bar, and gable sill. The scale for 
the elevation is three-sixteenths of an inch to the foot, 
and for the details one-sixteenth of an inch to the inch. 

In constructing the roof, the sash bars and end 
rafters should be cut at such an anole as will make a 



DETAILS FOR ROOF. 



au 




40 GREEN"HOUSE CON"STRrCTlOX. 

tiglit joint with tlie ridge iibove and the plate below, 
and tlieii firmly nailed in place. If the plates are placed 
at the same angle as the roof, the lower ends of the sash 
bars should be let in to them about half an inch. As 
the panes of glass are generally of scant width, if the 
sash bars are spaced so that they are exactly as many 
inches apart, measuring from shoulder to shoulder, as 
the glass is supposed to be wide, a good fit will be 
obtained. 



CHAPTER YII. 

COMBINED WOOD AND IKOK CONSTRUCTION". 

The use of iron for jiosts and rafters has been re- 
ferred to, and, as the growing opinion among greenhouse 
men is, that the question of durability should be consid- 
ered more than it has been in the past, there can be no 
question but that, in the construction of greenhouses, in 
the future iron will be quite largely used. 

IRON RAFTERS AND PURLINS. 

Various methods of construction are now in use, one 
of the best combining a framework of iron with wooden 
sash bars. For forcing houses, the rafters are about 
three l)y one-half inch, as shown at (1) in Fig. 2G, and 
are surmounted by a wooden rafter cap. The rafters (2) 
are fastened to each other and to the ridge by iron knees 
or brackets (3). The purlins are of one and one-half to 
two-inch angle iron, and are fastened to the rafters by 
means of iron lugs (4). If desired, gas-pipe purlins can 
be used. With large glass, and small sash bars, the pur- 
lins should be quite near together, but as the size of the 
sash bars increases, or that of the glass decreases, they may 



IROX RAFTERS AND PURLINS. 41 

be further apart. Wliile four feet will be none too little, 
in one case, tliej may be as mncli as eight feet in the 
other. When the ventilators are in long rows, either 
side of the ridge, the upper line of purlins should be 
under the lower edge of the sash, and should carry a 
wooden header, into which the ujDper ends of the sash 
bars are mortised. To the other jjurlins the sash bars 
are fastened by means of wood screws. 

When the distance between the rafters or other sup- 
ports is not over six or seven feet, one-inch gas pipes 




FIG. 26. DETAILS FOR COMBINED IRON AND WOOD 

ROOF. 

will make quite a stiff roof. They can be inserted in 
holes in wooden rafters when thcs-e are used, or can be 
held up by means of small castings attached to iron raf- 
ters. AVhen the roof is constructed of sash bars, without 
the use of rafters, a continuous line of pipe supported by 
posts, at intervals of six feet, will form a good purlin. 
Fig. 27 A shows a gas-pipe purlin, and B shows the clips 
for attaching the pipes to the sash bars. The pipe may 
be cut in lengths of six feet, and screwed into the tees to 
which the posts are attached, or, what is perhaps easier 



43 



GREENHOrSE CONSTRUCTION". 



to init up, tho tees are reamed out, so as to allow the 
pipe to slip through them. The lengths are screwed 
together, and, if desired, can he used as water pipes. 
If the purlin is connected by screw-joints with one or 
more of the posts on each side, a hose can be attached, 

:ind, although the effect 
will not be lasting, the 
water contained in the 
pipes will have the chill 
taken off. 

When a pipe purlin 
is used, with supports 
more than eight feet 
JFIG. 'ZH. GAS PIPE PURLIN, apart, it does not give 
good satisfaction, as it is more or less likely to sag. In 
order to hold the sash bars firmly down on the purlins, 
iron clips can be used, which should be screwed to, at 
least, every other sash bar. 





CENTER POSTS AND BRACES. 

In narrow houses with a walk in the center, no center 
post need be used, as, if the wall posts are firmly set, and 
particularly if a truss bracket is used in the angle of the 
roof (Fig. 28), there will 
be no danger of its sag- 
ging. As the width of 
the house increases, a 
necessity arises for either 

.• , , PIG. 38. IKON BRACKET POR 

su])porting posts or truss 

1 ROOF. 

rods. 

In wooden houses over fifteen feet wide, where there 
is no center walk, it is necessary to have a row of gas- 
pipe posts, either one incli, or one and one-fourth inches 
in diameter, to support the ridge pole, and if rafters are 
more than eight feet long, another row should be used 
to support them in the center. 



CENTER POSTS AND BRACES, 



43 



111 wide houses ilio rows of sii})})orting posts should 
be about six feet apart, one for each purlin. When the 
posts would stand in the walk, if placed vertically, they 
may be arranged as braces from the center posts, either 
as shown in Fig. 29 or in Fig. 60. If the ridge is 
supported there will be no danger of the walls spreading, 
even if diagonal braces are used. 

In one or two houses of recent construction the 
posts have been used as legs for the center bed, by insert- 
ing tees, into which the cross bearers for the bed are 




FIG. 29. IRON POSTS AKT> BRACES. 

screwed. The upper ends of these posts are fastened, 
by means of top castings, to wood or iron rafters, or by 
means of the tees previously mentioned to the pipe pur- 
lins. The lower end of the posts may be inserted into 
cedar blocks, or rest on masonry piers, either upon flat 
castings (Fig. 14), or in beds of cement. 

When iron rafters are used, particularly if there is a 
solid shoulder at the eaves, or if the roof is strengthened 
at that point by a strong angle bracket, there will be no 



44 GEEENHOUSE CONSIRUCTION. 

necessity for supporting posts unless the liouse is very 
wide ; but a truss rod, if necessary, may be nsed to keep 
tbe roof from crowding^ tlie walls out. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

IROX HOUSES. 

We have, thus far, only considered houses con- 
structed of wood, or partly of wood and iron, but, for 
many years houses built entirely of iron and glass have 
been used in Europe, and they are now frequently seen 
in this country. In favor of these houses it is claimed 
that they are almost indestructible, and that, if the iron 
is galvanized, there will be no necessity of painting the 
houses. In some cases, zinc or copper is used for the 
sash bars, and the same claims are made for those houses. 
For the most part, these claims are true, and, although 
one could afford to pay an increased price for iron houses 
that would need no outlay for repairs or renewal, pro- 
vided everything else is equally desirable, there are sev- 
eral serious objections to iron houses, that have, for the 
most part, restricted their use to large conservatories, 
and, even there, the combined wood and iron construc- 
tion is fairly holding its own. 

The objections may be stated as follows : 1st. As 
iron is a rapid conductor of heat, the amount thus taken 
from the liouse by the iron sash bars will be, perhaps, 
three to five times as great as would be the case were 
wooden sash bars of the same size used, and this requires 
a noticeable increase in the amount of fuel consumed. 
Several builders of iron houses, however, have so reduced 
the amount of iron exposed to the outer air, tluit, so far 
as radiation is concerned, there is, perhaps, no great 
differeuce. 



METALLIC SASH BAES. 45 

2d. With several of the methods of glazing, the 
packing used, although tight at first, soon becomes 
loose, and allows the heated air to escape through the 
cracks. 

3d. Even if the roof is water-tight, there will be a 
large amount of water congealed on the under side of 
the sash bars at night, which, melting as the heat rises 
in the morning, causes quite a shower. Frequently, in 
systems where large glass is used, a metallic strip is 
placed between the panes to act as a gutter, to catch the 
moisture condensed on the glass. If it works all right 
there should be no drip from the glass, but they fre- 
quently become clogged. 

4th. Even if such is not the case in England, it is 
found, in our extremes of temperature, that unequal 
expansion and contraction sometimes cracks the large 
j)anes, unless everything is very carefully adjusted, so 
that there is more or less broken glass. 

These objections have most force with the sash bars 
used for skylight glass, in conservatories, and do not 
hold true to the same extent when used with smaller 
jjanes in forcing houses. In conservatories, however, 
although the drip is not desirable, it does far less injury 
than in houses used for forcing and growing plants, and 
one will need to place the greater dui-ability and cheap- 
ness of maintenance of the metal roofs against the ac- 
knowledged increase of fuel required to heat the houses. 
The use of iron sash bars with metallic glazing, for com- 
mercial forcing houses, has not become general, as the 
matter of drij) and of fuel, to say nothing of the increased 
first cost of the houses, are questions of considerable 
moment with florists. 

METALLIC SASH BARS. 

Of the various forms of sash bars and methods of 
metallic glazing, the two that have been longest and 



46 



GREENHOUSE fONSTKUCTION. 



most extensively used are the llelliwell patent system, 
controlled by the Plenty Horticultural and Skylight 
Works, and those in the hands of the A. E. Rendle Co. 

HELLIWELL I'UTTYLESS SYSTEM. 

The llelliwell system makes use either of a steel 
sash bar, as shown in Fig. 30, or of a zinc or copper 
bar, as in Fig. 31. The glass is hekl in place by long 





FICt. 30. STEEL BAR. FTU. 31, ZIXC BAR. 

nELLIWELL PATENT GLAZING. 



clips of zinc or copper, drawn down upon the glass by 
small bolts. It is claimed, by some, that the zinc bars 
are not stiff enough. The steel bar does not have this 
objection, but it is considerably more expensive. In 
Fig. 31 the sash bar is shown, resting upon a purlin, 
to which it is attached by a bolt. Candle v\icking is 
used instead of putty. 

PARADIGM PATENT GLAZING. 

The Paradigm system of glazing, used by A. E. 
Rendle Co., differs principally in the form of the sash 
bar and in the fact that the glass is butted. The sash 
l)ai; is shown at .1, Fig. 32. It is fastened to the pur- 
lins by lugs, as shown in tlie section. The glass rests 



GALVANIZED IliOX SASH BAES 



47 



upon the vertical sides of the sash bar, and is held in 
place by a copper cap, D, which is drawn down upon 
the glass by a small boit, C. The sash bar serves as a 
gutter, to carry down to the plate any water that may 
enter between the cap and the glass. When sheet glass 
is used, all that is necessary is to j)nt it m place and bolt 
down the cap. When large, rough plate glass is used, 
cross gutters are inserted between the jjanes. Directly 
beneath the points where the panes meet a section is 
cut out of the sash bars, and a piece of copper, bent as 

at E, IS inserted. This 
not only catches any water 
that enters between the 
panes, but the condensed 
moisture on the inside of 
the panes is trapped, as it 
runs down the glass, and 
IS carried to the gutter in 
the sash bars. If desired, 
white lead can be used m 
the joints, and an air- 
FiG. 32. PARADIGM GLAZING, tight roof sccurcd. There 
should be no sag in this sash bar, and it seems to have 
several features that are valuable. 




GALVANIZED IRON SASH BARS, 

Within the last few years, galvanized iron has come 
into use for greenhouse roofs. The framework consists 
of angle and T iron, pat up in about the same way as 
when wooden sash bars are used. The ridge cap, cor- 
nice, gutters, and all exposed parts of the roof, are of 
galvanized iron. 

One of the simplest forms of iron sash bars is shown 
in Fio-. 33. It is made and used in the erection of 
conservatories, by M. H. Crittenden k Son, of Minneap- 
olis, Minn. As will be seen, it much resembles, in 



48 



GREENHOUSE . CONSTRUCTION'. 



shape, some of tlie forms of cedar sash bars, and consists 
of heavy galvanized iron, bent as shown in tlie illustra- 
tion. At the lower edge are bi'oad drip gutters, which 
will not be likely to become clogged. Tlie glass may be 
laid, in any way desired, with putty. A Y-shaped cap 
(2) rests upon the top of the sash bar, and is held firmly 
down upon the glass (3) by means of copper clips (4). 
Unless the purlins are placed quite close together, it 
would seem likely that the sash bars would sag, although 



/r^^S^ 




FIG. 33. WITHOUT COKE. FTG. 34. WITH STEEL CORE 
GALVANIZED IRON SASH BARS. 

a number of large houses are put up in this way, and are 
said to be giving good satisfaction. 

A form of sash bar that differs from Hie above, by 
having a core of steel thrcc-sixteentlis of an inch thick 
in the' center to add to its strength (Fig- 34), is also 
used. Tlie clip holding the glass is drawn down by a 
bolt. This, of course, is stronger than the other, but 
the cost is more. From the form and method of putting 
up these sash bars, there can be but little heat lost, from 



GALVANIZED IRON SASH BARS. 49 

radiation by the iron, and as the gutters seem to be 
arranged to catch all of the moisture condensed, there 
seem^ to be fewer objections to these sash bars than to 
almost any of the metallic sash bars. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE PITCH OF THE ROOF. 

All plants require light, in order to assimilate their 
food; an optimum temi)eratnre is also desirable for the 
proper performance by the organs of the plants, of their 
functions. From the sun we obtain not only light and 
heat, but chemical or actinic rays, whose effect on plant 
growth IS not well understood. In the case of green- 
house plants, the intensity of the sun's rays is greatly 
modified by the angle at which they strike the glass, as 
well as by the thickness and character of the glass itself. 
It has been found that about twelve per cent, of the 
light rays are intercepted, in passing through ordinary 
sheet glass, and sixty per cent, in their transmission 
tiirougli opal glass. 

This shows that much can be done by using clear 
glass to prevent the interception of the rays, and as the 
additional amount tliat is lost by reflection depends upon 
the angle at whicii the rays strike the glass, the careful 
adjustment of the slope of the roof should not be 
neglected. 

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION BY GLASS. 

When rays of liglit fall upon sheet glass at a right 
angle, they pass through without being turned from 
their course, and there is no loss, except from absorp- 
tion, which will amount to about twelve per cent. 
4 



50 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 

When they meet the glass at an oblique angle, a iiortion 
of the rays are reflected, and the remainder, less those 
lost by absorption, pass through the glass, and leave it 
in the same direction they had before entering. 

Fig. 35 illustrates the effect of a pane of glass, x y, 
upon rays of light falling upon it at various angles, A 
having ninety, B forty-five, and C fifteen degrees. A 
passes directly through and emerges with eighty-eight 
per cent, of its original intensity. B, on meeting the 
glass, has four and one-half 2)er cent, of its rays reflected 
to B' ; the balance, on entering the glass, are refracted, 
or bent from their course, and, on leaving the glass. 




FIG. 35. EFFECT OF GLASS AT DIFFERENT ANGLES. 

with eighty-three and one-half per cent, of their first 
intensity, are refracted, or bent back to their original 
direction at B". The effect upon the rays at C, wliich 
meet the glass at an angle of fifteen degrees, is not 
unlike that upon B, exce]it that thirty per cent, of the 
rays are reflected at C, while only fifty-eight per cent, 
emerge at C". The refraction, if anything, especially in 
the case of very oblique rays, is a benefit. The absorp- 
tion increases with the tliickness of the glass, and it is 
evident that there wonld bo more loss were it obliged 
to take the course 1-3 tlum there is in its refracted 
course 1-3, 



TUE OPTIMUM PITCH. 51 

The following table gives tlie amount of liglit lost 
by reflection at different angles of incidence : 



Angle of ray 60 de 


grees. 


Light 


lost 


2.7 


per cent. 


50 








3.4 




40 








5.7 




" " 30 








11.2 




20 








22.2 




15 








30.0 




10 








41.2 




5 








54.3 





During tlie short days of winter, when the sun is 
only above the horizon for less than ten hours, as many 
of the rays should be trapped as possible, especially pre- 
vious to ten o'clock in the forenoon, and after two 
o'clock in the afternoon. At the winter solstice, when 
the sun is farthest to the south, it rises about twenty- 
five degrees above the horizon at noon, and the slope of 
the roof should be sucli tliat the amount of light re- 
flected while the sun is between the horizon and the 
above altitude, should be the least possible. 

When the pitch of the roof brings the glass at an 
angle of twenty degrees, the sun, at five degrees above 
the horizon, will strike it at an angle of twenty-five 
degrees, and about sixteen per cent, of its rays will be 
reflected, in addition to, at least, twelve per cent, of the 
remainder, which will be absorbed in passing through 
the glass. Had the roof been given a pitch of thirty-five 
degrees, the sun at five degrees above the horizon would 
strike the roof at an angle of forty degrees, when only 
five and seven-tenths per cent, of the rays would be 
reflected, or only about one-third as many as were lost 
by reflection when the roof had a slope of twenty degrees. 

THE OPTIMUM PITCH. 

It is evident, fn^ni this comparison, that there 
should be a slope of, at least, thirty to thirty-five de- 
grees, to the roof, and that still better results in trap- 
ping the rays of light will be obtained if the roof has a 



53 GREENHOUSE COXSTKUCTION. 

slope to the south of sixty degrees, or more. The heat 
and actinic rays, in their passage through the ghiss, are 
subject to much the same hiws of reflection and absorp- 
tion as those of light ; and in the case of absorption, the 
effect produced by semi-opa([ue glass is even greater. In 
determining the proper pitch for the roof of a green- 
house, in addition to considering the requirements for 
the transmission of the sun's rays in their full intensity, 
at the season when they are most needed, yarious practi- 
cal considerations should be taken into account, among 
which would be the height of the side walls, the width 
of the house, the height of the roof above the })lants, 
and the effect upon the heating of the houses, as well as 
upon the drip from the glass. 

It will at once be seen that it is not desirable lo have 
a roof so steep as to greatly increase the glass area, and, 
consequently, enlarge the consumption of fuel; while, 
if it is understood that plants grow best when compara- 
tively near the glass, it will l)e seen to be unwise, except 
in "short span to the south" houses, to have the roof 
at a very sharp incline, as it will bring the plants in the 
center of the house at a considerable distance below the 
glass. With flat roofs not only is the rain likely to beat 
in between the lops of glass, l)iit the amount of drip, 
from moisture condensed on the under side of the panes, 
will be greatly increased. "When a roof has a slope of 
thirty degrees (seven inches in a foot), or more, there 
will be no trouble, but at anything under twenty-six 
degrees (six inches in a foot) there will be more or less 
drip, both from outside and inside moisture. 

The use to which the houses are to be put should 
also be taken into account, as if to be used only for win- 
tering over plants, no growth being desired, it will be 
o'-onomy, both in construction and heating, to have the 
r()i)f as level as ])ossible, and as good results will bo 
obtniiicd :!t a |)itch of twenty-six degrees, as in a greater 



MEAStJRIN"G THE PITCH. 



53 



one. Ou the other luiiid, for crops that require an 
abundance of light for tlieir quick development, the 
slope should not be less than thirty degrees, and if it 
can be secured without interfering in any way with the 
usefulness of the house in other respects, thirty-five 
degrees would be better. 

MEASLRING THE PITCH. 

The following table is given to show the angle that 
will be made by the sash bars for various widths of 
houses, and for different heights of ridge. In using tlie 
table, it must be understood that the width is measured 
from the bottom of the sash bar to a point directly under 
the ridge, while the height is measured on a, plumb line 
from the upper end of the rafter to the level of the 
lower end. 

ANGLE OF KOOF FOR DIFFEKENT HEIGHTS AND AVIDTHS. 



Width 

F,'ct. 








Heir /hi 


—Feet 










4 

o / 






fi 


7 


8 


9 






/ 


o / 


u / 


o / 




/ 


6 


33 21 


3i) 


48 


45 


49 24 


53 8 


56 


18 




2;t 44 


35 


32 


40 36 


45 


4S 49 


62 


07 


8 


2(i 33 


32 




3G 52 


41 11 


45 


48 


22 


9 


23 57 


29 


3 


33 5 


37 52 


41 38 


45 




10 


21 48 


2C 


33 


30 58 


35 


38 39 


41 


59 


11 




24 


26 


28 36 


32 28 


36 2 


39 


17 


12 




22 


r>7 


26 33 


30 15 


33 41 


36 


52 


13 




21 


2 


24 47 


28 18 


31 36 


34 


42 


14 








23 12 


26 34 


29 44 


32 


44 



From the table it will be seen that in an even span 
house twenty feet wide (ten feet from plate to a point 
plumb with the ridge), a slope of about thirty degrees 
(30° 58') can be obtained by raising the ridge six feet 
above the level of the plate (the distances for both height 
and width being measured from the ends of the sash 
bars), while, if it is placed at a height of seven feet, a 
slope of thirty-five degrees will be obtained. In the 
same way, taking the figures for the width from the ver- 
tical column at the left, and the height for the ridge 
above the plate from the upper horizontal row, the num- 



54 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 




SHOUT SPAN TO THE SOUTH. 55 

ber of degrees in the slope of tlie roof will be found 
where the corresponding lines intersect. 

SHORT SPAX TO THE SOUTH. 

The above remarks apply, for the most part, to the 
pitch of the roof in even span, or in three-qnarter span 
houses, when the long slope of the roof is upon the south 
side. It was stated, however, that if a slope to the 
south of sixty degrees could be obtained, more of the 
light and heat of the sun could be trapped. During the 
past two years several houses have been erected with a 
short span to the south and the long one to the north (Fig. 
36), differing from three-quarter span houses turned half 
around only in having both walls of the same height. 
As will be seen from the engraving (Fig GO), the houses 
are built with three walks and two wide beds, the north 
one being slightly lower than the other. It can be seen 
at a» glance that the plants upon the south bench are in 
an extremely favorable location, and can hardly fail to 
do well. The plants upon the north bed, however, are 
from eight to thirteen feet from the glass through which 
the sun's rays come, and are more or less shaded by the 
plants in the south bed. In theory, therefore, as a forc- 
ing house this form seems desirable, so far as the south 
bench is concerned ; but for the north bench it does not 
seem, in any way, preferable to the even span house, 
except that the snow does not remain upon the steep 
south slope, so that there is less obstruction of light dur- 
ing the winter. In practice, however (which should be 
the real test), excellent results are claimed by Mr. 
George W. Miller, of Hinsdale, 111., and by others who 
have tried it. As a summer greenhouse it has long been 
known that this form is a desirable one. 



CHAPTER X. 

GLASS AND GLAZING. 

In no portion of a greenhonse have as great changes 
been made, perhaps, as in the glass and the method of 
setting it. A comparatively few years ago, glass as small 
as five by seven, and six by eight inches was used; it 
was usually of only single strength, and was of such jjoor 
quality that the leaves of the plants were badly burned. 
The panes were often lajsped for an inch or more, and 
the putty was placed over, rather than under the glass. 

The glass most commonly used to-day is known as 
sheet glass, either single or double strength. The latter 
costs somewhat more than the single strength, but it is 
less likely to burn the plants, and as it will stand a 
much harder bloAv, the breakage from hail storms and 
by accidents will be much less, so that it will be cheaper 
in the end. In selecting greenhouse glass, two points 
sliould be borne in mind ; (1) it should be even in thick- 
ness, flat, and free from imperfections that would cause 
sun biTrning; (2) the glass should be of good size. 

DIFFERENT GRADES OF GLASS. 

Glass is graded as "Firsts," "Seconds," "Thirds," 
etc., the quality growing poorer as the numbers enlarge. 
The imperfections in glass are caused by air bubbles, 
unmelted specks, or various impurities. As the glass is 
melted, the impurities settle to the bottom, leaving the 
glass at the toj) quite clear. From this the "Firsts" or 
"Bests" are made; the "Seconds" come from a layer 
Just beneath, and so on to "Fifths" and "Sixths," 

56 



THE SIZE OF GLASS TO USE. 5*? 

which are of quite poor quality. The lower grades are 
made by less experienced workmen than the "Firsts," 
and not only are they more likely to contain imperfec- 
tions, but they are less even in thickness. 

In the past, •''Seconds" of French or Belgian sheet 
glass have been commonly used, and are still preferred 
by most builders, but American natural gas glass is now 
being extensively used, and it can be said that the 
"Firsts" are fully as good as French "Seconds," while 
the American "Seconds" make a very satisfactory roof. 
The grade known as "A" quality American glass is suit- 
able for almost any purpose, while "B" quality will 
answer for many classes of houses. The natural gas 
glass is thought, by some, to be fully equal to the same 
grades of European glass. 

THE SIZE OF GLASS TO USE. 

The size of glass has been on the increase, until 
to-day we find panes twenty, and even twenty-four, 
inches wide in use. While this extremely large glass 
makes a very light house, well suited for growing roses 
and lettuce, it is generally thought that a smaller size is 
preferable. For widths above eighteen inches the price 
rapidly increases, and this extra cost will be an import- 
ant question, both at the time of erection, and in case 
of breakage. When the glass is to be butted, square 
panes are preferable, as it is likely to have straight edges 
at least one way. In sections of the country where the 
snowfall is heavy, the danger of loss from breakage 
increases as the panes are enlarged, and although twenty 
inch glass may be used in the South, eighteen inches 
will be a maximum width in the northern states, even 
for forcing houses, while, for ordinary florists' houses, 
the sixteen, and even fourteen, inch glass is regarded as 
the best to use, everything being considered. 

Unless there is a decided change, the above widths, 
in lengths of from twenty to twenty-four inches, are the 



58 GKEENlIOrsE CONSTRUCTION. 

ones most likely to be used. This applies, (jf course, 
only to sheet glass, as rough plate or skylight glass and 
fluted glass may be used of a much larger size. 

FLUTED AND ROUGH PLATE GLASS. 

The fluted glass has, perhaps, a dozen I'ibs to the 
iuch, and is used, to, some extent, for large conserva- 
tories. For houses of this kind, built with metal sash 
bars, it is, perhaps, preferable to either sheet glass or 
rough i)late. The rough plate or skylight glass, as used 
in gi'cerdiouses, varies from one-eighth to one-half an 
inch in tliiekness, and from twenty-four by thirty-two 
to perhaps thirty-two by forty-eight inches. While 
well adapted for palm, and even for stove houses, it is 
not desirable for growing houses of any kind, as these, 
during the winter, need all the light they can wring 
from the sun. 

The amount of light and heat absorbed by glass 
varies with its thickness, as well as its clearness, and as 
the fluted and skylight glass are both semi-opaque and 
quite thick, they will probably absorb fully half of the 
light and heat that enters them, to say nothing of Avliat 
is reflected, and their thickness, although of advantage 
in giving them strength, is an objection in growing and 
forcing houses. 

DOUBLE AND SINGLE STRENGTH. 

On account of the increased obstruction to the heat 
and light rays l)y the double strength sheet glass, as 
compared with thin })anes, many prefer the latter for 
rose forcing houses, but it Avould seem that the amount 
lost by the necessity of bringing the sash bars closer 
together would n">re tliaii counterbalance it. 

While doublt itrength glass costs somewhat more 
than the single, the greatly reduced loss in case of hail 
storms, and the fact that the breakage by frost and other 



GLAZING — METHODS AND MATERIALS. 59 

causes is less with the former than the kittei* make it 
preferable. It is generally believed that, when in good 
condition, the danger from hailstorms is only from one- 
third to one-half as great. The reports of the Florists' 
Hail Insurance Association show that, although the 
amount of double strength glass insured is in excess of 
the single thick, the amount of glass broken is never 
more than two-fifths as much, and in some years the 
ratio is one to one hundred in favor of double glass. 



CHAPTEE XL 

GLAZING — METHODS AND MATERIALS. 

In setting the glass, the end desired is to so arrange 
it as to have the roof as nearly air and water-tight as 
possible, and to have the glass held firmly in place. As 
usually laid, the glass is lapped, with the upper pane 
extending about an eighth of an inch over the one below 
it. For curvilinear roofs this is joractically a necessity, 
and when the glass is straight and even, and well laid, 
it makes a good roof. Nearly all jaanes are more or less 
curved, and if two jianes in which the curves are not 
equal are placed together, there is likely to be a crack 
either at the corner or in the center of the panes. Care 
should therefore be taken to assort the glass and, if the 
curves are of different angles, it is well to select those of 
one angle for one row, and the others for another. 

PUTTY. 

For glazing on wooden sash' bars, if the glass is to 
be lapped, astrals should be selected with half inch rab- 
bets (Fig. 18), which .should first receive a line of putty 
sufficient to fill the shoulder. The best grade of putty 



60 CtHEENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION'. 

should be used, and tliis should be mixed with ]>urc 
white lead, at the rate of one part of lead to five of putty. 
If a larger proportion of lead is used, it will make the 
task of cleaning the bars a difficult one, in case of break- 
age, while, if the bars are kept properly painted, the 
mixture, as above, will hold for many years. 

Tlie putty should be worked rather soft, using lin- 
seed oil if necessary, and it will be found to stick to the 
wood best if it is as soft as can be used witbout sticking 
to the hands when they are well coated with whiting. 
Having applied the putty to a number of sash bars, the 
glass is laid on and carefully pressed into place, squeez- 
ing out all surplus putty until the upper end of the pane 
rests on the bar, and the lower upon the pane below, 
with a lap not exceeding an eighth of an inch. Care 
should be taken to have the curve of the glass up, if 
drip gutters are used, and down if they ai'e not. The 
surplus putty, both inside and out, is then scraped off, 
taking pains to fill any cracks that may be left. With 
the old method of placing the putty on the upper side of 
the glass, it was found that in one or two years the water 
worked under the jiutty and it scaled off, leaving a crack 
at the side of the pane, as well as underneath. This 
both allowed the heat to escape and tiie water to enter, 
besides permitting the glass to slip down or bio off, if 
its other fastenings became loosened. 

GLAZING POINTS AND BRADS. 

For holding the glass in i)lace there are a dozen or 
more kinds of points and brads. One of the best seems 
to be an ordinary five-eighths inch wire brad (Fig. 37 A). 
This is stiff enough to hold the glass firmly in place, 
and has such a hold upon the wood that, if properly 
driven in, there need be no fears of its loosening and 
allowing the jianes to sli]i down. Another advantage of 
this brad is that it is inconspicuous, and, consequently, 



GLAZING POINTS AND BRADS. 



61 



not unsightly, and it offers Jittle obstruction to the brush 
when the sash bars are painted. One of the most com- 
monly used glazing points is cut from thick sheet zinc, 
and appears as in Fig. 37 B. In shape they resemble 
three-fourths inch shoe nails, which are also sometimes 
used. When driven well in, this form of brad has a firm 
hold, and, moreover, is quite stiff; the bhint end, how- 
ever, tears its way into the wood, and, unless driven 
home, is readily detaclied. It is also more conspicuous 
than the wire brad, and is a slight hindrance to the 
painting. Two of these brads are used to hold the lower 
corners of the glass down in place, and two others are 
placed about an eighth of an incli from the upper edge, 
where they serve to hold the pane in ])lace and to keep 
the pane above from slipping down. Large panes require 
two other brads in the center. 

Of the various jtoints used for glazing, none is bet- 
ter than the zinc triangle, No. 000 (Fig. 37 C). While 
the smaller sizes may be used for the 
small panes of glass, or for house win- 
dow sash, where the putty is on the 
outside, they are not large enough for 
large greenliouse glass. One of these 
points is placed at each of the lower 
coi'iicrs of the panes, with one angle 
la])ping over the edge. After driving 
it in, this angle is bent down over the 
edge of the jiane so that it cannot slip 
down. Two other points are used in 
the middle of the panes. The dia- 




FIG. 37, 



GLAZING I'oiNTS. ^^^y,^,| points (Fig. 37 D) are driven in 
very I'apidly with a machine, but are rather small for 
large panes, except when the glass is butted. Another 
point that is sometimes used is a double-pointed carpet 
tack. This holds the glass firmly in place, but it is not 
particularly ornamental. 



63 GltEENHOUSE COiTSTRUCTION. 

Van Reypcr's glazing point (Fig. 3? E) differs from 
the above in being bout in the center, so as to better fit 
the lower edge of the pane, and to this extent it seems 
to be an improvement. Eames' glazing j^oint (Fig. 37 
F) is double pointed, and is designed to both hold the 
panes down in place and to keep them from slipping, 
and it successfully accomplishes it. Ives' point (Fig. 
37 6'') has a single point, with one corner bent to prevent 
the slipping of the pane. It is rather thick, and as it 
tears the wood when driven in, it does not have a very 
firm hold, even with the shoulder at the point. One 
objection to the last two kinds of points is that they are 
"rights and lefts," which leads to more or less confusion 
in using them, and another which applies to all double- 
pointed points, is that m order to hold the pane securely 
they must be very accurately driven into place. 

BUTTED GLASS. 

The method of setting greenhouse glass to which 
this term is applied, has been frequently advocated, and 
has been used, to some extent, for many years ; but it 
has never come into general use, principally on account 
of its being somewhat more difficult to reset broken 
glass and make a good joint, than when the glass is 
lapped. This kind of glazing has many advantages over 
the other, among the more important of which are, that 
a tighter roof can be made, thus effecting a saving in 
fuel ; there is less danger of broken glass, either from 
ice forming between the panes when la]iped, or from 
accidents, as, when a lapped pane is broken it frequently 
cracks the one beneath ; more benefit can be derived 
from the sun, as with lai)ped glass soot and dirt collect 
between the laps, causing an opaque streak, and even 
when this is not so, the double glass at the lap obstructs 
more light than the single glass. Moreover, admitting 
the fact tluit it is sometimes hard to get a good fit m 



BUTTED GLASS. 63 

repairing butted glass, using the old method of glazing, 
the labor of kee^jing a butted roof in good condition is 
less than for caring for one that is lapped, as there will 
be fewer breaks to repair, and using the new styles of 
sash, bars the panes can be very readily replaced. 

The only objection to butting the glass in glazing is, 
that upon flat roofs, after the glass has been set a few 
years, water, in a driving rain storm, will find its way 
between the panes and cause a good deal of drip. On 
the other hand, upon roofs with an angle of 35° or more, 
there will be sufficient adhesion between the water and 
the glass to cause it to run down on the under side of 
the panes to the plate, and thence to the ground, or, as 
arranged in some houses, either into an inside gutter, or 
through the wall into the outside gutter. 

In laying glass upon the old style of sash bars, a 
thin layer of putty, or a film of thick j^aint, is placed on 
the sash bar, upon which the panes are laid and tacked 
in place, taking care to securely fasten the bottom pane 
in each row, to prevent slipping. In order to make the 
roof both air- and water-tight, it is well to seal the crack 
with white lead. To do this mix pure white lead with 
equal i)arts of good putty ; spread this in a tliin layer on 
a smooth board or joane of glass, and press the lower 
edge of glass against it before jilacing on the sash bars. 

In setting the panes, crowd them together so as to 
force out all surplus material, leaving the lead to fill any 
inequalities between the panes and act as a cement to 
unite them. When this is properly done the rows of 
glass will virtually consist of a single pane, and will 
remain for several years, both air- and water-tight. In 
time the lead will work out of the larger cracks, but if 
they are so large as to prove troublesome they can be 
refilled with but little trouble. To make a good job in 
butting glass, all panes with rough edges should be 
rejected, or used only at top and bottom. 



04 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTIOlsr. 



Having the panes nailed in jDlace, tlie cracks at the 
sides sliould be filled by applying thick paint with a 
brusli, or, as is preferred by some, by use of a putty 

bulb. The name of paint 
bulb AYOuld, perhaps, be as 
ajipropriute for the latest 
forms, which have a small 
brusli projecting beyond 
the end of the tube, by 
which the crack is filled, 
and the surplus material 
brushed off (Fig. 38). If 
very much paint is used it 
will be necessary to sift on 
sand to keep it from run- 
ning, but, when properly 
done, there will be little 
need of using sand upon 
it. If desired, the use of 
paint or putty under the 
glass can be dispensed 
with, although unless the 
glass fits snugly it will 
lessen the amovmt of paint 
tliat runs down between 
the panes. Ives' putty 
machine (Fig. 39) is very 
convenient for back-puttying in repairing roofs. Upon 
the more recent forms of sash bars the glass may be 
laid in paint or pntty if desired, and the crack at the 
side filled in the same way ; or both may be dispensed 
witli, and the glazing performed by merely laying the 
])anos in place on the sash bars (filling tlie cracks 
between the panes witli Avhite lead, if desired), and fas- 
tening the wooden strijis in i)lace l)y means of screws, 
thus holding them down. 




PAINT BULi;. 



GLAZING STRIPS. 



65 



Gl.AZIXG STRIPS. 




FIG 



For use with tliis method of glazing, Gasser's glaz- 
ing strip is considered very valuable by many who have 
ti'ied it. It consists of a narrow strip of zinc bent into 
the form of the letter Z, as 
shown in Fig. 40, wiiich is 
placed between the panes so 
that one leg of the Z is under 
the upper panes, and the 
other over the under ones. 
The cracks between the glass 
and the strip should be filled 
with white lead, or some 
other lasting cement, which 
will fasten them together, 
and thus make a tight joint 
water-tight much longer than when the lead alone is 
used between the panes. If the strips are not properly 
laid, or if they are not cemented securely to the glass, 

the leakage w^ill be much 
greater than when no strips 
are used. Aside from their 
cost, and the labor of put- 
ting them in, the strips 
obstruct a small amount of 
light, but with large panes 
none of these objections 
are of serious importance. 



0. ITES' PUTTY 
MACHINE. 

This will make a roof 




FIG 



40. gasser's glazing 

STRIP. 

From the present light tl)at can be obtained on the 
subject, the best advice as to glazing of greenhouses and 
forcing houses is, use one of the sash bars shown in Figs. 
20, 21 and 22 ; have the roof with an angle of thirty-five 
degrees; butt the glass, closing the crack with white 
lead, or, if a roof that will remain w\ater-tight for many 
years is desired, use the glazing strip. With glass of a 
5 



66 



GREENHOUSE CONSTltUCTION. 




width greater than sixteen eighteen inclies, it will he 
best to laj) the panes. When butted glass, laid with the 
convex side down, is used, there will be no necessity 
for drip grooves in tiie sash bars upon steep roofs, if 

there are no cracks at the? 
sides of the panes. One im- 
jiortant feature of this meth- 
od of glazing is, that when 
resetting broken glass, in- 
stead of bothering to fit the- 
panes, as is necessary with 
ordinary sash bars, one needs 
only to loosen the screws that 
hold the cap, and, slipping 
up (or down) the remaining' 
])anes, i)lace the new one in 
jilace at the bottom (or top). 
FIG. 41. NEW METHODS and screw down the cap ; or. 
OF Gi<AziNG. if the panes are cemented in 

place, one can be selected that will fit the opening. 

To be used successfully, glass, to be butted, sliould 
be true and even ; as, if panes with difl'erent curves are 
placed together, water will be collected and drip, unless 
the roof is quite steep. The difficulty increases with 
large panes, and sizes over sixteen inches will need to be 
very carefully selected, if used in this way, even with 
the glazing strip. 

NEW METHODS OF (JEAZING. 

Two other systems of glazing are shown in Fig. 41, 
one of whicli is for butted glass, and the other for lajiped 
glass. In both, the sash bars are used without rabbets, 
which makes a lighter roof than can be obtained in any 
other way. In the first method, which was used by J. 
D. Raynolds, of Kiverside, 111., the glass is butted, as 
shown at A, and is held in i)lace by a screw and Avasher, 



VENT1LA.T0RS. 67 

at the intersection of the panes. By breaking oS. a small 
corner from each, the screw can be inserted, and the 
washer will press the glass into place. By the other 
method, which was described in the American Florist, 
the glass is lapped, and held in place by a piece of sheet 
lead, bent as at B. The lower corner of the paries 
should be nipped off, and an opening made through 
which a brad or screw can be inserted. If desired, a film 
of white lead can be placed between the panes to close 
np the joints, but no other painting will be necessary 
upon the exterior. 



CHAPTER Xn. 

VENTILATORS. 

For all kinds of plants it is desirable, at some sea- 
sons of the year, that means be provided for supplying 
fresh air, and for removing surplus heat. It has been 
found that, if openings are provided for the egress of the 
air, fresh air can find its way in, and no necessity will 
exist for considering that side of the question, except 
during the summer months. As the air of greenliouses 
IS generally warmer than that outside, it will naturally 
tend upward, and ventilation will be most effective if 
provided at the higliest part of the building. The ven- 
tilators should be arranged so as to prevent direct drafts 
of cold air upon the plants. They are sometimes placed 
on both slopes of the roof, in order that the opening 
may be opposite to the direction of the wind. 

In some houses large ventilators have been placed, 
at intervals, along the roof ; but better results are ob- 



68 



GREEXHOLSE CONSTRUCTION. 



tained when coiitinuons lines of narrow ventilators on 
one or both sides of the ridge are nsed. 

CONTIXUOUS VENTILATION". 

Wlion a continnons row of ventilating sashes is nsed, 
a small opening will provide the necessary ventilation ; 
but, if they are scattered at intervals along the roof, the 
openings will need to be two or three times as large, and 
the draft of cold air npon the plants will be greatly 
increased. The openings at the ends of the sash invite 
side drafts- It is a poor plan to have a continnons row 




FIG. 42. ARRANGEMENT OF VENTILATORS. 

of sashes, only })art oL' which are nsed. Particularly if 
f)n a high roof, where shafting is necessary to work 
them, there will be constant trouble from the swelling 
and sticking of the sash. Although not necessary, the 
continuous Avorking sash may be fastened together with 
strips of band iron. 

VKXTILATIKG SASH. 

The sash should be nuide in the snme way as hot- 
bed sash, Avith n thin strip for the lower edge. The 



yentilating machinery. 69 

joints should be located over tlic middle of rafters or 
sash bars. The glass used for the sash should be of the 
same width as for the rest of the honse, except the rows 
at either end of each sash, which should be somewhat 
narrower, to allow for the increased width of the side 
strip of the ventilating sash. 

haxginCt the sash. 

The old method of hanging the sash was to have 
the hinges on the upper side (Fig. 42 A), but as, for 
the same size of opening, a ventihitor will be more effi- 
cient when hinged at the lower edge (Fig. 42 B), that 
method will be generally used, especially when there is 
only one line of sash. When only one line is used, they 
should be on the same side of the roof as the prevailing 
cold winds come from, when hinged at the bottom, and 
on the other side if hinged at the top. 

YEXTILATING MACHIXERY. 

In small houses, a simple method of opening the 
ventilators is by means of what are sometimes called sky- 
light fixtures, which are fastened to the lower edge of 
the ventilator by screw eyes. They have holes at inter- 
vals, through which a pin on the edge of the header is 
passed, thus holding the sash at any angle desired. One 
sash at a time only can be opened, and, for houses of 
any length, some form of apparatus that will ojien all 
the ventilators on a given line is desirable. 

A SIMPLE APPARATUS. 

One of the simplest is shown in Fig. 43. It con- 
sists of lifters made of one inch by one-fourth band iron 
(B), about two feet in length, fastened rigidly to the 
lower edge of the ventilator (A), and extending down 
into the house at right angles to it. A small wire cable 
runs the length of the house, and near each ventilator a 
cord [C) is attached, which, after running through a 



70 



GKEENHOL'vSE CONSTliUCTIOX. 



pulley, IS fastened to the lower end of the lifter. The 
cable is arranged so that it can be readily drawn through 
the house, lifting all of the sash to any required height. 
The motive power may be applied to a small rope run- 
ning through pulley blocks, or by means of a small 
windlass. As first made, they were closed by their own 
weight, and, as they were not held down in any way, 
accidents often happened in high winds. An improve- 
ment (Fig. 43 D) is in an additional rope, attached to 
the bottom of each sash, and running through a pulley 
to a point beyond, where it is fastened to the main cable. 
If the cable at the farther end of the house is carried 




FIG. 43. A SIMPLE VENTILATING APPARATUS. 

over a pulley, and has a heavy weight attached to it, the 
cable will be drawn back, Avhcn it is desired to close the 
ventilators, and will hold them securely in place. 

SHAFTING. 

In nearly all other ventilating machinery, tlie power 
is conveyed by means of a gas pipe shaft running along 
under the ventilators. In some cases it passes tiirough 
a cross i)laced in the ridge post, about a foot from its 
upper end, and in others, it is held in place by means 
of a clamp fastened to the post. The usual method of 
fastening is by moans of small hangers screwed to the 



SHAFTIXG. 



71 



rafters. When sashbars alone are used to form the 
framework of the roof, some method of hanging the 
shaft to the posts is desirable, but not necessary. 

Various methods of applying the power have been 
msed, the most common of which is the common elbow 




TIG. 4-i. NEW DEPARTURE VEXTILATIXG APPARATUS. 

!fixture shown in Figs. 43 and 46. These are strong and 
(do their work well, except that they are applied at a dis- 
^advantage when the sash is just beginning to open, and 
as this is the point at which they are most frequently 



72 



GEEENHOUSE COSTSTRUCTIOJST. 



used, it will have to be regarded as a slight objection. 
Another form of fixture is regarded as a "New Depart- 
ure," by J. D. Carmody, the inventor. It has much 
the shape of a meat saw (Fig. 44), and lifts the sash by 
the action of the cogs on the shafting, upon those on 
the fixture. It works easily, and the same force is 
required to lift the sash, at whatever 
height it may be. A form quite similar 
to this is used with the Little Victor 
machine, and is recommended by the 
inventor, E. P. Hippard, as valuable for 
small sash. 

Various contrivances have been ar- 
ranged, by which the weight of the ven- 
tilators, in closing, shall coil up a 
spring, which, when it is desired to 
open the sash, will furnish a large por- 
tion of the power. One of the best of 
these is known as the Ormsby Spring 
balance. It has jiroven quite satisfac. 
tory, and works very smoothly, opening, 
with the expenditure of very little power, 
a long line of sash. It is easy to put 
up, and the only objection to the system 
is that, after two or three years of use, 
the springs wear out. 

Of the machines used to work the 
shafting, with its elbow fixtures, the 
simplest is the kind generally used by 
greenhouse builders. It consists of a large wheel upon 
the shaft, worked by a worm upon the upper end of a 
rod, to which the power is applied by means of a crank, 
or a hand wheel. It will be found in several of the illus- 
trations. Among the more recent candidates for favor 
are the Standard and Challenge machines. 

The former, shown in Fig. 45, is manufactured by 
E. Hippard, Youngstown, Ohio. It is a very easy work- 




FIG. 45. 
STAND A KD. 



SHAFTIXG. 



73 



ing machine, but does not work quite as fast as some 
of the others. In the old machines, the large wheel on 
the shaft sometimes slipped, or was i^ushed away from 
the small pinion, but with the new double header there 




FIG. 40. CHALLENGE. 

should be no trouble. As will be seen from the engraying,^ 
the power is applied, by means of a hand wheel and worm, 
to the vertical shaft which works inside the post. At 



74 



GKEEJ^UOLSE COJSSTKL'CTION. 



the upper end of the shaft is a pinion, or bevel gear, by 

which the power is conveyed to the shaft. We have 

found it a very satisfactory machine. 

The Challenge machine (Fig. 4G) is made by the 

Quaker City Machine Co., of Eichmond, Ind. It differs 

from the Standard in using 
sprocket wheels and an end- 
less chain, instead of a ver- 
tical shaft and gearing. The 
first machines made had sev- 
eral slight defects, but these 
have been corrected in the 
latest pattern, and the ma- 
chine now does very good 
work. While it does not 
work as easily as the Stand- 
ard, it gives a more rapid 
movement to the sash, and 
to that extent is preferable 
to that machine ; the latter 
excels in ease of operation, 
although either can be 
changed by varying the size 




FIG. 4T. 

A SIMPLE FIXTUKE. 



of the gear and sprocket wheels. 

CHEAP VENTILATING MACHINE FOR LOW HOUSES. 

In low span roof houses a simjile method of Avorking 
the shaft is sliown in Fig. 47. It consists of a lever of 
one inch gas pipe (A), perliaps four feet long, fastened 
to the shaft {!)) by means of a T. By means of this, a 
line of narrow sash fifty feet long can be opened or 
■closed, and can be held in place by means of a pin ])assed 
through a strip of iron (/>), as shown in the sketcli. 

OUTSIDE SHAFTING. 

When the ridge is too low to admit of running the 
•shafting under the roof, it may be ])laced on the outside. 



OUTSIDE SHAFTING, 75 

as shown in Fig. 48. In any house, if, for any reason, 
the shafting is not desired on the inside of the liouse, 
this arrangement, which is used by Hippard and others, 
may be employed. 

AVhile a single wide line of ventilators will answer, 
in houses less than twenty feet wide, two narrow lines 
on opposite sides of the roof will be preferable. In wide 




FIG. 48. OUTSIDE SHAFTING. 

houses ventilating sashes in the vertical walls are desir- 
able, and some builders of three-quarter span houses pre- 
fer to have one row at the ridge and one in the south 
wall, even in rose houses, to having the two rows at the 
ridge. In even span houses there is less occasion for 
side ventilation, except in wide houses. In Fig. 42 is 
shown a variety of methods of arranging the ventilating 
eash, and of attaching the ventilating machines. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



OREENHOUSE BENCHES 



The benches used by the average florist are a con- 
stant source of trouble and exj)ense. Built as they usu- 
ally are, of cheap or waste lumber, their life is a sliort 
one, and they frequently break down while in use, either 
ruining the plants, or so mixing the varieties as to make 
them of little value. A wooden bench generally has to 
be renewed within five years, and in some cases three 
years sees their period of usefulness at an end. Not 
only is tlie florist required to pay for labor and material 
for constructing u new bench, but, as frequently the 
weakness is not discovered until the bed is being pre- 
pared for use, the delay necessitated ir. planting the bed 
may greatly lessen the profits. The best materials for 
greenhouse benches are iron and tile, or slate, but, as 
the average florist will think he cantu)t afford this kiiul 
of a table, let us consider the next best thing. 

WOODEX BEXfUIES. 

With a little attention in constructing and caring 
for wooden benches, their durability can be doubled. 
When wooden legs are used, they should be raised above 
the level of the soil and walk, upon a brick or stone pier. 
This will not only furnish a firm support, and thus pre- 
vent the settling of the boich, but it will serve to keei> 
the lower ])ortion dry, and check its decay. Red cedar 
or locust will make the most desirable legs but, as they 
cannot always be readily obtained, cypress or pine Avill 
be generally used. \\'h('n tlu' walls of the house are of 



WOODEX BENCHES. 



77 



wootl, the back ends of the cross bearers can be nailed to 
the posts, or to the studding, and in houses constructed 
upon a brick or grout wall this can readily be used for 
supporting them. Measuring from the inner face of the 
wall, the length of the cross bearer should be two inches 
more than the width of the bench, thus admitting of a 
free circulation of air in the rear. When the wall can- 
not be used to support the backs of the side benches, 
wooden legs can be used, the same as for the fronts, and 
for the middle bench. These should be about two by 
four inches, and from two to five and a half feet in 
height, according to location and the character of the 
house. 

The cross bearers may range from two by four 
inches for narrow benches, to two by six, or even two by 
eight inches for wide ones. If 
fastened to the legs, as shown in 
Fig. 49 A, there will be little dan- 
ger of their becoming detached and 
letting the bench down. If these 
supports are placed once in three 
and one-half or four feet, the com- 
mon six by one inch fence boards 
can be placed longitudinally for 
bottoms, when shallow rose beds 
are desired, although the twelve- 
inch boards are better for the stag- 
ing of pot plants. To provide for 
thorough drainage, cracks three- fig. 49. 

fourths of an inch wide should be vrooDEX benches. 
left between the boards. If deep beds are to be used, 
or if large pot plants are to be placed on them, the dis- 
tance between the supports may profitably be reduced to 
three feet, or one and one-half inch boards used. For 
the front and back of the benches strips of board from 
three to six inches wide, in accordance with the kind of 




78 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 



plants to be grown on them, should be used. If the 
legs are extended to the top of the front boards, as in 
Fig. 49 B, they will be held firmly in place and will last 
much longer. The legs and cross bearers, as well as the 




FIG. 50. GAS PIPE r.ENCn SUPPORTS. 

side pieces, should be thorouglily painted before they are 
fitted together, and this will often double their period of 
use. After the bench is completed, it Avill pay to give 
the inside a thorough coating with Louisville cement, of 
the consistency of thick })aint. 



IROX BENCHES. 



79 



The width of greenhouse benches varies, to a large 
degree, with the width of the house, and the use to 
which it is put. The side benches, in a rose house, are 
sometimes as narrow as two feet and six, or, perhaps, 
eight inches, and are seldom wider than three feet and 
six inches, which should be the maximum. The center 
benches range from five to seven feet in width. When 
properly built and well cared for, benches of this descrip- 
tion will be far more economical, in the end, than the 
cheap constructions generally seen in greenhouses. 

IROX BEXCHES. 




Many florists who are not ready to try the iron and 
slate bench, are using iron legs and cross bearers. The 
simplest forms are 
made of one-inch gas 
pipe (Fig. 50), the 
lower end of the leg 
resting in a cedar 
block sunk in the 
ground, and the up- 
per end supporting 
the front end of the 
cross bearer, by fig. 51. 
means of a malleable iron T, from the top of which a 
short piece of pipe extends even with the top of the front 
boards, thus holding it in place. The front boards can, 
if desired, be placed outside the pipe, and held in jilace 
by iron clips. The rear end of the cross bearer is 
screwed into the wall post, or set in the masonry, when 
possible, and if neither of these methods of support can 
be used, gas pipe legs can be provided, the same as for 
the front. For center benches a somewhat heavier con- 
struction would be necessary, the cross bearers being of 
one and one-fourth inch gas pipe. When houses are 



MEXDEXHALL S BEXCH. 



80 



GREEKHOUSE COXSTELXTIOX. 



built on the '^^ ridge and furrow" plan, the cross bearers 
for the side benches ma}^ pass through the wall into the 
adjoining house. 

ANGLE IRON BENCHES. 

One of the simplest forms of iron benches was re- 
cently figured in the American Florist (Vol. VI, Page 
983), as Mendenhall's bench (Fig. 51). It rested upon 
brick piers, and consisted of two or three inch angle 
irons, placed so as to form the front and the back of the 
bench. The bottom was of slate or boards, as desired. 
By using intermediate strips of T iron, narrow strips of 
slate, or bench tile could be used. 

Another form of greenhouse bench has been tried in 
the houses of E. G. Hill, Richmond, Ind. The cross 
bearers and longitudinal strips are of a light street car T 
rails, with bottoms of slate and sides of narrow boards, 

held in place by narrow 
strips of iron. The 
bench is supported on 
cedar posts (Fig. 52). 
The cost of the iron rails 
is given as eleven and 
one-half cents per foot. 
This is considerably 
more than the cost of 
tlie lighter grades of 
angle iron, but as the 
rails are much stronger, 
the number of legs and 
cross bearers is reduced, 
which might bring it 
down to the same cost. The least durable porticms of 
this bench are the sides and legs ; the latter, however, 
could be made of iron, if desired. 

Perhaps the neatest form of iron bench is shown in 
Figs. 14 and 53. The size of the iron required is accord- 




pk;. irZ. HiLi/s KENcn. 



ANGLE IRON BENCHES. 



81 



ing to the width of the bench, and the use to which it is 
to be put. For a rose house, the side benches can be 
supported on one and one-half inch cross bearers of T 
iron {D, Fig. 14), placed once in four feet, with one and 




FIG. 53. ANGLE IRON BENCH. 

one-half inch angle iron {G) for the front and back, and 
two intermediate one and one-fourth inch T irons {H). 
Using twelve-inch slate, or tile, for the bottoms, the 
bench will be three feet and two inches wide. For the 

G 



82 GKEENnOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 

logs, one incli gas pix)c {E), or one and oiic-fourtli inclt 
T iron can be used. The gas pipe can be flattened at 
its upper end and bolted to the cross bearers, or it cait 
be inserted into a casting (Fig. 14 F and F'), which can- 
then be bolted on. With such a casting at the top, and 
a flat plate for the leg to rest in at the bottom, a ycvj 
neat bench can be made. If sides are desired to the 
benches, larger angle iron can be used for the outer 
edges of the benches, say three by two inches, or three 
to fiYc-inch strips of board can be used, and held in place 
either by the edges of the angle iron, or by means of 
screws jjut through holes in the angle iron. 

BENCU BOTTOMS. 

The bottom is, as a rule, the first portion of the 
bench to decay, and if any part is to be of indestructible 
materials, this should be the one. The most satisfactory 




-ir^5^5,-t i 1^ • 



FIG. 54. TILES FOR BENCHES. 

bench bottoms, in every way, are some of the forms of 
''bench tile." They are more or less porous, and pro- 
vide both for drainage and for a thorough aeration of 
the soil. Those invented by W. P. Wight, of Madi- 
son, N. J., seem particularly desirable. They can be 
made of any size desired, although about twelve by six 
inches seems a good one, and differ from most of the 
others in having a row of holes along the center (Fig. 54 
A). The form shown in Fig. 54 C is five inches wide 
by twelve long, and Fig. 54 B represents a tile seven by 



BENCH BOTTOMS. 



83 




84 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 



twelve inches, both of which are manufactured for ''fire- 
proofing" tlie structural iron in modern fireproof blocks, 
but answer very well for bench bottoms. By leaving 
spaces between the tiles, ample drainage can be secured. 
Mr. Wight has invented a bench (Fig. 55) to be used 
with his tiles. 

For the tables in the show house, or conservatory, 
upon which large plants only are placed, large slabs of 
slate, of the full width of the bench, may be used with- 
out any covering. In the growing houses some covering 
for the slate is desirable, and smaller sizes may be used. 
Heavy roofing slate, about twelve by eighteen inches in 
size, can be cheaply obtained, and, with a covering of 
coarse gravel, makes an excellent plant table. When 
used as bottoms for the tables in rose houses, and 

for cutting beds, they are 
less satisfactory than bench 
tile, as they allow of but 
imperfect drainage and aer- 
ation, and the soil and 
sand soon become sour. 
With careful watering the 
injury will be somewhat 
lessened, but the tile will 
be found more satisfactory. In Fig. 56 will be seen a 
method of using shite for bench bottoms, with wooden 
supports. 

The use of boards for bench bottoms may be eco- 
nomical where lumber is cheap, and the other materials 
expensive, but the more durable materials will generally 
be preferable. 

SOLID BEDS. 

For growing many crops the so-called solid bed will 
be desirable. These are of the same widths and in the 
same i)laces as the raised beds, but, as a rule, are not as 




FIG. 56. 
WOOD AND SLATE BENCH. 



PAIXTIXG AND SHADING. 85 

high above the walks. When the underlying soil is 
light and sandy, the application of about six inches of 
prepared compost will be all tbat is required to make 
them, except the erection of barriers of wood or brick to 
keep the soil in place. It is generally necessary to pro- 
yide some kind of drainage, and for this purpose three- 
inch drain tiles have been found excellent. By placing 
them two feet apart and eight inches below the surface, 
across the beds, ample drainage will be provided, and the 
warming and aeration of the soil will be promoted. 



CHAPTER XIY. 

PAINTING AND SHADING 

In order to preserve the wood from decay, and the 
iron work from rusting, the materials should be covered 
with some substance that will render the woodwork 
water proof, and prevent the oxidation of the iron. 
There are on the market many patent paints that may 
be suitable for certain j)urposes, but very few of them 
will prove satisfactory for greenhouse painting. If jnire 
white lead and linseed oil, with a small amount of Japan, 
are used, the results will be as satisfactory as can be 
obtained from any mixed paint, and as the covering of 
the framework of a greenhouse Avith some paint that 
l^roved worthless for the purpose would lead to a large 
expense, it is better to take something that is known to 
be good, than to experiment with materials that, though 
apparently cheap, may prove dear in the end. There 
are several low priced brands of so-called "white lead," 
that are composed largely of zinc and baryta, and if 
these are used the paint will peel off within a year., 



86 GREENHOUSE COXSTEUCTIOX. 

If the houses are to be painted white, a little black 
should be adtk'd to take off the glare. However, some 
other light color may be preferred to white, and a pleas- 
ing one can be made by adding yellow and a small 
amount of green, producing a very light shade of green. 
With darker trimmings upon the house, this will be 
found quite satisfactory. While it is desirable to use 
pleasing tints for painting the greenhouses, preservation 
of the timber is the main object to be sought. 

PAINTING THE GREENHOUSE. 

The priming coat should be given before the house 
is erected. As soon as the parts have come from the 
mill, the joints should be made, as far as is convenient, 
and, if possible, the woodwork should then be soaked in 
hot linseed oil. A long tank sliould be made, and by 
placing the oil in it the parts can readily be dipped. If 
steam pipes can be run through it, all the better. When 
this cannot be done, the woodwork should be given a 
thorough priming coat. The addition of yellow ochre, 
or some similar material, to the oil, will be of advantage. 

In putting np the house, too much pains cannot be 
taken in coating every joint with pure white lead paint. 
The average carpenter will not see the advantage of this, 
but a coat of thick paint should be insisted upon. 

As soon as the framework is up, a second coat 
should be given it. Our best greenhouse builders use 
two coats of paint for commercial, and thi'ee for private 
establishments. If only two coats of paint are to be 
given, every crack and nail hole should be filled with 
good jjutty before the second coat is applied, but, if a 
third coat is to be given, the puttying sliould be delayed 
until the second coat is dry. When three coats are to 
be given, it will bo easiest to apply the last coat to the 
interior of the house before the glass is set, although it 
would serve to hold the putty in jilacc under the glass if 



KEPAIXTIX(i. 87 

Ht were api^lied after the glazing is completefl. "What- 
<ever tlie uiimber of coats, the last one to the exterior 
:should not be given until the glass has been set, as then 
any crack that may remain at the sides of the panes can 
be filled, and the roof will be made water tight. The 
putty would also become softened, and would work out 
v\-ere it not jiainted. 

In drawing the sash, on the exterior, the paint 
should be rather thicker than is used for ordinary paint- 
ing, and it is an excellent idea if it is drawn out upon 
the glass for, perhaps, an eighth of an inch. In this 
way, the paint will serve as a cement to hold the panes 
in place, should the other fastenings become displaced. 

KEPAIN'TIKG. 

Whether two or three coats of paint are given the 
houses at the time of erection, another should be applied 
after one year, to the exterior, at any rate, although 
when three coats have been used the painting of the 
interior may be delayed another year. In order to keep 
a greenhouse in the best repair, one coat should be given 
to all exterior wood work each year, and to the interior 
every second year. This frequent application of paint 

lis made necessary by the fact that, if cracks open at any 
place, water will enter, and the rapid decay of the wood- 
work will follow. If painting is long delayed, cracks 

! large enough to admit water often open between the 
glass and the putty, and the latter, becoming softened, 

.is washed out. Through the openings thus formed, heat 
will escape, and water can gain entrance. 

PAIXTIXG IROKWORK, PIPES, ETC. 

Iron houses also require frequent painting, not only 
in order to preserve the material, but to prevent the 
:rust that forms if the ironwork is not kept coated with 
]paint, from discoloring plants, Avalks, woodwork, and 



88 (IREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 

anything else that it may fall npon, with the drip. All 
ironwork that forms part of the greenhouse structure 
proper, should be of the same color as the woodwork. 
When iron tables are used they should be kept well 
painted, using some color of asphalt or Japan paint, — 
black asphalt being cheap and quite durable. 

For the sake of the improved looks, to say nothing 
of increasing their durability, the heating pipes should 
also be painted. While asphalt will answer for this pur- 
pose, it is known that a larger amount of heat will be 
radiated from them if of a dull color, than if they are 
smooth and glossy, and the efficiency of the pipes will 
be increased by ajjplying a mixture of lampblack and 
turpentine. The durability of the paint will be improved 
by using linseed oil, but it will have a glossy appearance, 
and if oil is used it should not form more than one-half 
of the mixture. 

SHADING. 

In order to keep down the heat and prevent the 
burning of the foliage of the plants, it is desirable to, in 
some way, obstruct the entrance of the heat rays. For 
some classes of plants a permanent sbading is desirable, 
and this can be secured by the use of fluted or rough 
plate glass. For most purposes, however, a temporary 
shading only is necessary, and some form of wash ap])lied 
to the glass is commonly used to give this, when shading 
is necessary throughout the summer. 

The application of lime or Avhitewash, either by 
means of a large brush or syringe, is a cheap way of 
shading the house, and is commonly used by commercial 
florists; but it is hardly satisfactory, as, when thick 
enough to keep out the heat rays, it obstructs too much 
of the light. One reason for this is, that if a coat of the 
proper consistency is given, it frequently peels off in 
spots, and when a second application is made, to cover 



TEMPORAKY SHADING. 89 

these openings, it is too thick upon the other portions 
of the ghiss. This wash, too, has a glaring appearance, 
that is not pleasing to the eye. 

Perhaps the most satisfactory shading is made hj 
the use of either white lead or whiting, in gasoline. A 
very small amount of lead, — perhaps a teaspoonful, — 
will suffice for a gallon of gasoline, but the quantity of 
whiting required will be much larger. It will be best to 
make a thin preparation, and, if found to be too thin,, 
more of the lead or Avhiting can be added. This wash 
can be put on in a fairly satisfactory manner with a 
syringe or small force pump, but it can be spread more 
evenly and with greater economy of material with a large 
brush, and, where the appearance is considered, this will 
be a better way. It is generally desirable to put on a 
thin coating early in the spring, and add a second one 
in May or June. If not put on too thick, the fall rains 
and frosts will loosen the shading, and it will disappear 
as winter comes on. If this does not take j)lace soon 
enough, the roof can be wet down with a hose, and any 
surplus rubbed off with a stiff brush. 

TEMPORARY SHADIXG. 

For orchid houses it is desirable to have a form of 
shading that can be regulated at pleasure. Some of the 
roller blinds answer well for this purpose, as they can be 
lowered on bright, sunny days, and drawn up at night, 
or in dull weather, to suit the needs of the plants. Cloth 
shades of light canvas or fine netting are less desirable, 
but answer very well. They can be used either outside 
or inside the house, and, if hung on curtain or awning 
fixtures, can be raised or lowered at pleasure. 

AVhen orchids are suspended from the sash bars, the 
shutters, canvas, netting or other material used for 
shading, must be placed above the glass, and, to allow a 
circulation of air above the roof, iron rods should be so 



W GEEENHOUSE CONSTRUCTIOX. 

arranged that the shading material will be supported at 
a height of twelve or fifteen inches. By moans of ropes 
and pulleys, the awnings can be easily raised or lowered. 
For shading cutting benches, there is nothing better 
than light frames covered with cotton cloth, although 
lath screens are very useful. 



CHAPTER XV. 

GREENHOUSE HEATIKG. 

In our climate, most of the plants growni in green- 
houses require artificial heat to be maintained from six 
to nine months of the year, in order that natural condi- 
tions may be secured for them. While some plants are 
3iot injured by exposure to thirty-two degrees, and thrive 
best at forty-five to fifty degrees, the so-called stove 
plants should have seventy degrees, or more, and to 
secure these temperatures in greenhouses various meth- 
ods have been devised. 

The crudest method is by slowly decomposing vege- 
table materials, and allowing the heat to radiate into 
the air ; 2d, the Polmaise system, which consists in pass- 
ing cool air over a hot iron surface, and directing it into 
the house ; 3d, by burning wood or coal in a furnace, 
and directing the gaseous products of combustion 
through the house in a brick or tile horizontal chimney, 
known as a flue ; 4th, which differs only in the method 
of conveying the heat, as in this it is taken up by Avater 
and carried wherever needed in the form of steam, or by 
the circulation of the water itself. 

The first method is only employed in hot beds and 
similar structures ; the second, known as the Polmaise 
system, is not adapted for greenhouse heating, although 



HEAT1>;G "WITH HOT WATER. 91 

when combined with the flue, it is sometimes used. In 
some sections of the country the flue is still made use of 
in heating small greenhouses, biit by most florists steam 
or hot "water is preferred. 

Whatever the method of heating used, the average 
person would consider, in making a selection, the first 
cost and the durability, the economy of fuel and attend- 
^mce, and the efficiency, both as concerns the amount 
and the regularity, of the heat suiDplied. Among other 
things that would be taken into account, are the even- 
ness with which the heat would be distributed, the 
length of time the systems will run without attention, 
and the effect of each upon jilant growth. 

HEATING WITH HOT "WATER. 

This system was one of the first to be used for the 
heating of greenhouses in modern times, and it is claimed 
that the circulation of hot water, as a means of convey- 
ing heat, was used by the old Eomans in warming their 
dwellings. It went out of use, however, until 1777, 
Avhcn a Frenchman, Bonnemain, reintroduced it. An- 
cient as the method is, the hot water heating systems of 
to-day are comparatively modern inventions, and bear 
little resemblance to those used even fifty years ago ; in 
fact, the change has been so recent that many of the 
systems in use to-day are built on quite diiierent princi- 
ples from those constructed according to the latest ideas. 

HOT WATER 12^ THE EARLY DATS. 

The Eomans are believed to have used bronze circu- 
lating pipes, and the first pipes used for heating green- 
houses were of copper, and measured four to five inches 
in diameter. The heaters used were also of cojiper, and 
generally resembled an open kettle, resting upon a brick 
furnace. From the kettle two four-inch pipes ran to 
the other end of the house, where they entered a coi3per 



*J2 GREENHOUSE CONSTKUCTIOX. 

reservoir (Fig. 3). The pipes were perfectly level, and 
one left the heater iit the top, forming the flow, while 
the return entered at the bottom. 

For thirty years previous to 18S0, the usual method 
of heating greenhouses was similar to the one described 
above, except that closed cast-iron heaters were used, 
from which cast-iron pipes carried tlie water about the 
houses, ending in large open expansion tanks or distrib- 
uting reservoirs. 

MODEKX HOT WATER HEATING. 

Modern heaters are made in hundreds of designs, 
and while each is generally claimed, by its inventor, to 
surpass all others, it is a hard matter to decide which 
one is really best. They are made of both cast and 
Avrought iron (small ones may be made of coi^per, zinc, 
etc.), and here, at once, arises a dispute as to the merits 
of the two materials. 

The wrought iron is more likely to rust and, during 
the long summer months, when they stand unused in 
the damj) greenhouse stoke-holes, they often suffer severe 
injury. The wrought iron is, also, more injured than 
cast-iron, by the sulphurous and other gases of combus- 
tion and, for these reasons, it is claimed by some that 
cast-iron boilers will last much longer than those of 
wrought iron. This has certainly been the case with 
some heaters, but it has been due, in part, to the fact 
that many heaters have been made of common gas pipe, 
instead of the double strength pipe which should be 
used. When this thin pipe is threaded, and the threads 
are not made in, the surface exposed is quickly eaten 
through. When no pipes smaller than one and one- 
fourth inch ai-e used, and these are double strength 
boiler flue pipes, th.e durability of the wrought-irou 
heaters will be increased. 



POIXTS FOR A HOT WATER HEATER. 93 

POINTS FOR A HOT WATER HEATER. 

Aside from durability, simplicity, and compactness 
of construction, the following points in tlie make-up of 
the heater should be considered : 1. The amount and 
arrangement of the direct heating (fire) surface, and its 
jH'oper adjustment to the grate area. 2. The arrange- 
ment of the water sections, or tubes, and the circulation 
of the water in the heater. 3. Ease of cleaning the 
flues, and the arrangements for shaking, dumping, 
removing the ashes, regulating the draft, etc. 4. The 
character of the joints, and the ease with which leaks 
can be repaired, and breaks mended. 

If the first and second requirements are met, we 
may have a heater that is efficient and economical of 
fuel, but the points noted in the third have much to do 
Avith the ease of firing and caring for the heater, while 
those in the fourth will be desirable in case leaks occur. 

1. ARRANGEMEXT OF THE FIRE SURFACE, 

It is well known that a surface arranged at right 
angles to the fire is nearly twice as efficient as one 
that is parallel to it. Unless this can be secured, it 
necessitates a corresponding increase of the area of fire 
surface, which will not only add to the cost of the boiler, 
but will render it more cumbersome, and increase the 
amount of circulation of water in the heater. When 
the arrangement is such that horizontal surfaces cannot 
be secured over the firepot, the same effect can be, in 
part, obtained, if the direction of the draft is such that 
the flames are drawn at right angles towards perpendicu- 
lar tubes. When this can be brought about, it affords 
very effective heating surface, and is not objectionable ; 
on the contrary, it is desirable to so arrange the draft 
and flues, that the products of combustion are carried in 
as indirect a course as is possible, and yet secure a proper 
draft for combustion, removal of smoke, etc. By doing 



94 GREENHOUSE COJSTSTKUCTION, 

this, and by repeatedly bringing this heated air in con- 
tact with the water sections, we can finally lower the 
temperatnre down a})proxitnately to that of the water. 
The nearer we approach this, the greater economy shall 
we find in the heater. 

While it is of importance that heaters have ample- 
grate areas and a good draft, the amount and arrange- 
ment of the fire surface is of equal importance. To 
obtain the best results, the grate area and fire surface 
should be carefully adjusted ; but for this no general 
rule can be given, as some heaters have their surface so 
nicely arranged that the heat liberated upon one square 
foot of grate area can be taken up by fifteen square feet 
of heating surface, while in other heaters thirty-five or 
forty feet of fire surface will be insufiicient. In a gen- 
eral way, a square foot of grate surface will supply two 
hundred and fifty square feet of radiating surface, but, 
as a nile, it will be more economical if two hundred 
square feet of radiating surface is taken as the limit. 

2. ARRANGEMENT OF THE WATER SECTIONS AND 
TUBES. 

The arrangement of the fire surface will, of course, 
determine the position of the water in the sections and 
tubes, but will not, necessarily, regulate the direction of 
the fiow, the amount of water, etc. The circulation of 
the water in the ordinary heaters is vertical, horizontal, 
in drop tubes, or a combination of two, or even all three 
of these ways. 

The circulation in the lieater should be as short as 
possible, and it is better to have the water spread out in 
thin sheets, and with the arrangement such that the 
water is divided into a number of jiortions, each of 
which makes a single short circulation, than it is to have 
the entire mass of water that flows through the heater 
warmed by convection, or compelled to pass in a zigzag 



POINTS FOR A HOT WATER HEATER. 95 

course through a number of different tubes and sections. 
In this way, too, the friction will be decreased and the 
circulation improved. 

So far as circulation goes, the vertical tube tends to 
reduce friction, and to this extent it is desirable. On 
the other hand, the friction produced by one circuit of 
the water in a horizontal section is so slight that it is 
often more than counterbalanced by the increased effi- 
ciency of the horizontal fire surface. 

The drop tubes used in many boilers present a very 
good fire surface, as the ends are directly over the grate, 
and, as the water circulation is vertical, they form a very 
effective portion of the heater. When large tubes are 
used there is little danger of their filling up with sedi- 
ment, and the principal objection that can be urged 
against them is that the water cannot be drawn off from 
them. 

Another thing that it is desirable to secure, if possi- 
ble, is the bringing of the products of combustion, as 
they are about to leave the heater, in contact with tubes or 
sections containing the return water. It can be readily 
seen that water at 175° coming back in the returns, can 
still take up heat from gases that have been in contact 
with iron surfaces that are 200° or more. In this way 
considerable heat will be saved that would otherwise pass 
ujj the smoke pipe. 

3. ARRAXGEMEXTS FOR CLEANING AND FIRING. 

It is self-evident that anything that adds to the con- 
venience of a heater will be desirable, and the matter of 
shaking, dumping, and regulating of drafts should be 
considered. ' Of especial importance, however^ is the 
matter of cleaning the flues. Unless there is p, great 
loss of heat, a heater cannot be made in which there will 
not be, in some portion, an accumulation of soot, and if 
this is upon any of the heating surfaces it should be 



^6 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 

frequently removed. A heater in which the flues can- 
not be kept clean is of little value, and the greater the 
ease with which it can be done, the better. If the sur- 
face requiring cleaning is small and easily cleaned, the 
actual trouble would be very slight, and although the 
flues of some heaters are practically self-cleaning, their 
heating surface may be less efl'ective, which would more 
than counterbalance the cleaning required by the other. 

4. SIMPLTCITY OF CONSTRUCTION". 

Many heaters are quite intricate in their construc- 
tion, and the different parts are fastened with screw 
joints, or, as is more common, the joints are packed and 
the parts are drawn together with bolts. Everything 
else being equal the fewer joints there are, the less 
chance there will be of leaks, and in selecting a heater 
this should be considered, as well as the character and 
location of the joints. The screw joint is perhaps the 
surest, but it has one ejection, particularly in wrought- 
iron heaters, as the threads tend to increase the corrod- 
ing influence of the sulphur gases. Packed joints are 
fairly reliable, but it is desirable that they be easy of 
access, and so arranged that they can be repacked should 
serious leaks occur. Some of the sectional heaters are 
so constructed that, if one section is broken in any way, 
it can be cut out of the circulation, and the heater can 
then be used without it until the section is mended or a 
new one procured. In case the section has to be replaced 
by another, the arrangement should be such that the 
change can be readily made. 

While all of the points enumerated above are deemed 
desirable in a heater, it can still be of great value if it 
does not possess one or more of them ; but in selecting 
a heater, while the fact that one or more important fea- 
tures were lacking might not prevent its being chosen, 
it would be well to take the one which comes the nearest 
to possessing them all. 



CHAPTER XA I. 



PIPES AJSD PIPIKG. 



In the old styles of hot water plants, the pijies were 
of four-inch cast-iron, put together with shoulders and 
packed joints, and with large expansion and distributing 
tanks at the ends of the runs, and at the points where 
the branches left the main lines. In. the modern system 
two-inch pipe is the largest used for the coils, while one 
and one-fourth inch and one and one-half inch are pre- 
ferred for short runs. 

Some of the advantages of the modern system may 
be stated as follows: The lengths of pipe are from two 
to nearly four times as long, and can be screwed together 
instead of haying to pack the numerous joints ; there is 
less chance of leaky joints or of cracked pipes ; although 
the cast-iron four-inch pipe has only twice the radiating 
surface, it is necessary to provide four times the amount 
of water for the circulation that the two-inch contains; 
on account of the size and weight of the four-inch pipe 
it is necessary to have them low down under the benches 
hut little above the level of the heater, while the small 
wrought-iron })ipe can be carried in the very angle of the 
ridge if desired, and thus a far more rapid circulation 
can be maintained than with large pipe ; the large pipe 
carrying a large yuantity of water and giving a slow 
circulation, is at a much lower tem2)erature, particu- 
larly on the returns, and a smaller radiating surface will 
suffice when small pipe is used, so that some florists 
count a two-inch Avrought-iron pipe equivalent in heat- 
ing capacity to a four-inch cast-iron pipe ; from the 
7 97 



08 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION, 

large pipe the amount of heat given off on bright, sunny 
days when it is not needed, will be from two to four 
times as much as from small ones, and this will neces- 
sitate increased ventilation and perhaps cause serious 
injury from drafts of cold air, to say nothing of the loss 
of heat ; finally, in addition to the points enumerated 
above, the small pipes will give a much more econom- 
ical circulation than the large ones, they can be carried 
to a much greater distance, and the heat will be far 
more even. 

It has been claimed that the large piping is safer to- 
use, as it will hold the heat longer. This is undoubtedly 
true, if the fire is allowed to go out ; but, with a well- 
arranged system, a regular, even temjjerature can he 
maintained with small pipes for ten to twelve hours, on 
mild winter nights, and seven to eight hours on severe 
nights, which is as long as it is desirable for the houses 
to go without attention. 

The term '' upward ])ressure " is often used in speak- 
ing of hot water circulation ; but although it is a con- 
venient one to use, it really has nothing to do with the 
circulation, as there is no pressure of the kind exerted. 
Hot water has a doivnivard pressure equal to its own 
weight, and the only reason for circulating is that the 
weight of the hot water is more than balanced by the 
Aveigbt of the cooler water in the pipe, and it jiasses 
upward, pressed out of the way by the heavier cool water 
which pushes into its jilace. The same thing can be 
seen in a kettle of water where the water in the center is 
warmed and is pushed to the top, while the cool Avater 
from above takes its place. The metliiod of circulating 
in a hot water apparatus can be best understood by 
reference to one of the old styles, as shown in Fig. 3 
{a represents the heater, e the expansion tank, and g the 
flow and return joipe). Let us suppose that a fire is built 
under the boiler, and that the water contained therein 



HOW SHALL THE PIPES SLOPE ? 99 

becomes warm, the same as in an ordinary kettle. It is 
known that water when warmed from 39° to 212° in- 
creases in bulk one twenty-fourth. If the water in a 
is warmed up to the boiling point it has decreased in 
weight, per cubic inch, one twenty-fourth. The water 
then in e is one twenty-fourth heavier than in a, and, to 
establish an equilibrium, the water in e will pass along 
the lower pipe to a, crowding the lighter water into the 
upper pipe. 

If the heat is continued, other particles are set in 
motion the same way, and the rapidity of the circulation 
will increase until it is balanced by the friction. The 
circulating force is governed by the comparative weight 
of the warm water in the different parts of the system. 
The pressure of the water varies with the height of the 
columns, as well as the temperature of the water. If 
the height of the columns is increased, tlie difference 
between the weights of the two columns will be increased 
in about the same ratio, and as this difference in weight 
is what causes water to circulate, the reason for the 
success of the overnead system of piping can be readily 
seen. The same effect could, however, be secured were 
it convenient to do so by lowering the heater. 

There has been considerable discussion for many 
years as to the best way of running the pipes, but even 
now very few persons agree as to the proper method of 
arranging them. 

HOAV SHALL THE PIPES SLOPE? 

Among the various methods are the "up-hill," 
" down-hill," and ''level," and these are shown in Fig. 57, 
1, 2, and 3 ; the last, however, is not desirable when 
small pipts are used. In each case the height of the flow 
pipe at the point where it starts to make a circuit of the 
house is six feet above- the bottom of the boiler, but in 
the first case the pipe rises one foot in j^assing through 



100 



GKEENHOUSE C'OKSl RUCTION. 



the house ; in the second it falls a foot, and in the third 
it does not change its level. In changing direction at 
the farther end, a foot fall is made by each pijie, and on 
the return a fall of one foot is made by the first and 
second systems, while the third remains at the same 
height until it has nearly reached the heater, when it 
drops to the level of the bottom of the heater. 

The "])ressure" is determined by the relative weight 
of the water on either side of the highest point of the 



(1) 



{■^) 



(;>) 




FIG. 



THE SLOPE OF THE PIPES. 



system, and it would have been a fairer comparison had 
the flow pij)e for the " up-hill" system left the heater at 
a height of five feet rather than six, as the highest point 
in each system would then have been six feet above the 
bottom of the boiler. When the size and the length of 
the pipe, the connections, etc., are the same, the system 



HOW SHALL THE PIPES SLOPE ? 101 

that is arranged to give the greatest difference between 
the weights of the water on either side of tlie highest 
point, will have the best circulation, everything else being 
equal. For convenience let us consider that in each 
system the "flow" pipe extends from the heater to the 
highest point of the piping, and the returns extend from 
that point back to the boiler, entering at the bottom. 
To secure a good circulation, the water in the flow pipe 
should be as light (hot) as possible, and, that it may not 
be subjected to cooling influences, the j^ipe should be as 
short as possible. If the flow pipe is short, then the 
highest point in the system must be near the heater. 

In order that there may be a difference in the weight 
of the two columns of water, that in the return pipes 
should be as heavy (cool) as possible, and this can be best 
secured, everything else being equal, if the distance is 
considerable. Turning to the illustration we shall see 
that the highest point in (3) and (3) is directly over the 
heater, while in (1) it is at the extreme end of the system ; 
the return in (1) is only one-half as long as in (2) and (3), 
so that the cooling will be only about one-half as great. 

As w^e wish to keep the water in the pipe between 
the heater and the highest point of the system from 
cooling, a large pipe should there be used, while, as it 
is desirable to cool off the water in the returns, the 
remainder of the system should be of small pipe. Con- 
sidering the average temperature of the water in the flow 
pipe to be 200° F., and that in the returns 170°, a cubic 
foot of the latter will be one-eightieth heavier than a 
cubic foot of water at 200°. If a pipe one foot high 
contains one pound of water at 200°, the same pipe will 
liold 1.0125 pounds of water at 170°, and were the two 
united there would be a '"pressure" of .0125 of a pound. 
Were each pipe ten feet long, the water in one would 
■weigh ten pounds and in the other 10.125 pounds, and 
there would be a pressure of an eighth of a pound. 



102 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTIOX. 

while at eighty feet there would be one pound pressure, 
or eighty times as much as at one foot. 

It will thus be seen that the pressure increases with 
the height of tlie columns. As we wish to have as much 
weight as 2)ossiblc in the returns, they should be brought 
back to a point near the heater at as near a level as pos- 
sible, and at the greatest convenient height. As just 
shown, if a flow pipe is filled with water at 200° and we 
consider it to weigh one pound for each foot of pipe, 
there will be a pressure of .125 of a pound from a return 
filled with water at 1?0° F., if the pipes are each ten 
feet high. This would be the pressure then in a hot 
water apparatus under the above conditions, i. e., the 
flow pipe rises ten feet above tlie heater, and passing 
through the house returns to a jioint over the heater, 
without changing its height. 

On the other hand, suppose that after passing to the 
farther end of the house it drops perpendicularly five 
feet and returns at that level to the heater. There will 
then be a head of five feet where the water has a tem- 
perature of 185° and of five feet when it has cooled down 
to 170°, and we should have 

(185°) 1.0057X5=5.0285 
(170°) 1.0125X5=5.0625 

10.0910-10.=.0910 lbs. 

As compared with a pressure of 0.125 of a pound when 
the return was ten feet high, this shows a pressure of 
only .0910 of a pound, or a loss of .034 of a pound as 
compared with the other method. In order to allow the 
air to escape, the pipes cannot be carried on a level, and 
hence as the next best method they should be given a 
gradual fall throughout their length, taking pains to 
keep them as high as possible in order to secure pressure. 
AVhile it will be best to have long straight runs, with the 
same sloue throughout, if necessary there may be vari- 



OVER VS. UNDER -BENCH PIPING. 103 

ous obanges in the level of the pipes, and circulation can 
still be kept up, provided the necessary vents for remov- 
ing the air are provided, and the pressure, as explained 
:above, is sufficient to overcome all friction. 

In some cases the down-hill piping (2), Fig. 57, 
•cannot be used to advantage, and the ui>hill system (1), 
•will serve the purpose. With the slight difference in 
level that can be secured in greenhouse heating, jjarticu- 
larly if the pipes are under the bench, the difference in 
efficiency will hardly be noticeable. Theoretically, the 
level piping, as in Fig. 57 (3), gives the greatest pressure ; 
the down-hill system comes next, and the up-hill piping 
gives the least pressure, although, as piped in Fig. 57 (1), 
the pressure with a coil seven feet high is about the same 
;as with the level piping in a coil six feet liigh. 

OVER YS. UNDER BENCH PIPING, 

It is unquestionable that if all the pipes are above 
the benches, the circulation will be better than if all, or 
■even a part of them, are below. If one or two pipes are 
jjlaced upon each plate, and the others near the j^urlins, 
the amount of light obstructed will be comparatively 
small ; the heat, however, will not be as well distributed 
as if the pipes are spread out below the benches. Experi- 
ments to test the matter have shown little if any differ- 
■ence in the results, wiietlier all of the pipes are above or 
below the benches, but with the feed pipe above the 
bench and the coils below, there is an improvement in 
circulation, and fully as good if not better growth of 
plants as when all are below, and this j^lan should be 
used whenever practicable. 

The principal benefits from overhead piping are (1) 
the melting of snow and ice on the roof, (2) taking the 
'chill from cold drafts of air and (3) drying off the 
plants after syringing, all of wiiich will be largely done 
by the overhead main. The overhead system, moreover, 



104 GREENHOUSE- CONSTEUCTION. 

carries the coils higher than they are in the iinder- 
bench system and a more rapid circulation is secured. 

Some houses have been piped with the flow pipes 
under the side benches, and the returns above the 
benches. While this gives a good circulation, better 
results can be obtained if the pipes are placed in the 
same way except that the overhead pipes are attached 
to the flow pipe from the boiler, and those under the 
benches to the returns. The returns under the bench 
can either be of the same size as those above, or of a 
larger size. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

SIZE AND AMOUNT OF PIPE. 

The size of pipe best suited for the coils depends- 
upon the length as well as upon the height of the coils- 
Considered as radiating surface only, one-inch pipe would 
be preferable, but, except for very short runs, since the 
friction increases as the size of the pipe decreases, a> 
larger size should generally be used. Inch and one- 
quarter pipe can be used to advantage in coils not over- 
forty feet long, and if the height is sufficient, the length 
may be considerably increased. For coils up to seventy- 
five feet in length, one and one-half inch pipe will be 
entirely satisfactory. Two-inch pipe will work well up 
to one hundred and fifty feet, but it is better in all 
houses over one hundred feet long to use two or more 
short coils of one and one-half inch pipe. In this way, 
by having proper flow and return pipes connected with 
the coils, houses three hundred feet long can be heated 
with hot water. 

If it can be so arranged, however, it will be better- 
to have houses one hundred and fifty feet long on either 



SIZE FOR MAINS. 105 

side of a potting shed and connecting passage, which 
will really make houses three hundred feet long while^ 
with the heater located at the center, they will be only 
one hundred and. fifty feet in length so far as the heat- 
ing apparatus is concerned. 

SIZE FOR MAIJfS. 

In determining the size for the feed pipes the lengtli 
of the house and the height that the coils will have, should 
be considered, as well as the number of square feet of 
radiation to be supplied. For houses of average length, 
and with the average height of 'the coils six feet above 
the bottom of the heatei', 

2 inch pipe will supply 200 to 300 square feet of radiation. 

3 " " " 600 to 800 " " " 
SVa " " " 800 to 1000 •' " " 

AYith long coils and light pressure these figures wall 
need to be slightly reduced, but if the runs are short 
and the coils elevated they may be increased fifty per 
cent. 

TO. ESTIMATE RADIATIOX. 

In computing the amount of radiation required for a 
house, the climate, exposure, construction of the house^ 
and the amount of exposed wall surface should be con- 
sidered,, as well as the temperature to be maintained. 
When the walls are high or poorly built, or if the roof 
is not tight, allow^ance should be made for it by adding 
to the glass surface one foot, for every five feet of 
exposed wall, and a corresponding increase for the poor 
glazing. 

In most parts of the countr}^ we can reckon tliat 

1 square foot of pipe will heat to 40'^ iVz square feet of glass. 

1 " " " " " 50= 4 " " " 

1 " " " " " 550 31/3 

1 .. <i .. .. u coo 3 .. u u 

1 " " " " " 65° 21/2 " " 

1 '' " " " " 70° 2 " " " 



lOG 



GREENHOUSE CONSTEUCTlONo 



While a slightly higher estimate would be safe, it is 
economy to have an abundant radiation, especially for 
tropical houses. 

In estimating the surface of wrought-iron jiipe, 

1 inch r)iv>e is leclconed nt .344 s(ni;iro foot per linear foot. 
IVi " " " 434 

1V2 " " " .497 '• " 

2 " " " .021 " 

PIPING IHE HOUSES. 

In arranging the licating i)ipes we can place them 
all under the benches, have them all above the benches, 
or the flow pipes may be over the tables and the returns 
underneath. If tlie under-bench system is nsed, the 
arrangement shown in Fig. 58 is a good one. When the 
liouse is one hundred and fifty feet long a three-inch 




TIG. 58. UNDER BENCH* PIPING, WIDE EVEN SPAN 
HOUSE. 

flow i)ipe will be needed for each of the side benches. 
(A two-inch pipe Avill answer for a house one hundred 
feet long.) When the coils arc of one and one-half inch 
pipe there should be two, each seventy-five feet long,, 
upon each side, or three of fifty feet each. With two coils 



PIPING THE HOUSES. 



10? 



the mains should enter the house close to the bottom of 
the bench, and falling at the rate of one inch in twenty 
feet should pass to the middle of the house, where a two- 
inch branch should be taken off at the side by means of 
a hot water T ; the main should be continued by means 
of a two-inch pipe to the farther end of the house, where 
it should connect Avith the coil. 

In a house one hundred feet long the two-inch feed 
pipe should be run in the same way as the above, except 




FIG. 59. UNDER BENCH PIPING FOR NARROW EVEN 
SPAN HOUSE. 

tliat the branches should be of one and one-half inch 
l^ipe. If desired, however, the coil can be of two-inch 
pipe, in one piece. The return pipes should fall towards 
the heater at the rate of one inch in ten or twelve feet. 
If the bench is too low to admit of a proper fall of the 



108 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 



flow Y^\pc from, and of the return towards the heater, the 
flow may be given a gradual rise to the farther end, and 
thus a fall can be secured for the returns. 

Another method that will be preferable to either of 
the above when the bench is high enough to give a fall, 
or if the return can be placed below the level of the 
walk, is to attach the feed pipes to the coils at the end 
nearest the heater. The coils can then be given a 




FIG. 60. OVERHEAD PIPING, SHORT SPAN TO THE 
SOUTH HOUSE. 

fall from the heater, and the returns can come back 
nnderneatli. The arrangement of the pipes in a narrow 
even span house to be heated to forty-five degrees is 
shown in Fig. 59. 

OVERHEAD PIPING. 

In carnation and other cool houses where the amount 
of pipe is so small that it can be carried upon the plate 
and purlins, and particularly in "short-span to the south'* 
houses, the overhead piping will perhaps be desirable. 
The feed ipe can be carried upon tlie ridge posts 



PIPING THE HOUSES. 



109 



(Fig. 60), aud the returns arranged as shown in the 
sketch, or the flows, as several small pipes, may be above, 
and the returns, as one or two large ones, below. 

COMBINED OVERHEAD AND DNDER-BENCH PIPING. 

For most commercial establishments the above 
arrangement will be preferable to having all the pipes 
above, or all under the benches. One method is illus- 
trated in Fig. 61, iu which the main is carried near the 
ridge, and the returns in vertical coils upon the bench 
legs. In the north-side propagating house, all of the 




TIG. 61. COMBINED OVERHEAD AND UNDER -BENCH 
PIPING. 

pipes are under the bench. For an even-span house one 
hundred feet long and twenty feet wide to be carried at 
sixty-five degrees, the arrangement illustrated in Fig. 62 
will give good results. 

With a good fall, one and one-half inch pipes in the 
coil can be used for a long run, but it will generally be 
better to make two coils on a side, each fifty feet long. 
At the middle of the house, feed pipes (one and one-half 
inch) can be taken off to feed the first coils, and the main 
can be extended as a two-inch pipe to the end of the 
house, where branch pipes can be connected with the 
other coils. Fig. 63 illustrates a method of piping a 



110 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION, 



forcing house one Imndred and fifty feet long and twenty 
feet wide that is to be kejjt at sixty-five degrees. The 
coils, as in Fig, 62, are jjlaced horizontally, which prob- 
ably makes them more efficient tban when they arc 
arranged yertically. Fig, 81 shows a method of arrang- 
ing the heating pipes under the benobes that can be used 
when there is a bench across the farther end of the 
house. As the main is somewhat elevated, it has some 
of the merits of the combined system. It will be noticed 
that although Figs. 53, 63, and 81 are designed to illus- 




riG. 62, COMBINED PIPING, EVEN SPAN HOUSE, 
100X20 PEET ; 65 DEGREES. 

trate methods of piping, they also show various ways 
of building the Avails, ventilators, posts and braces, 
benches, etc. 

PIPING NARROW HOUSES. 

In low and narrow houses the same methods of 
piping can be used, making proper reductions in the 
number of the pipes in the coils, and in the size of the 
main. Thus, for a span-roof house twelve feet wide and 
one hundred feet long, to be kept at fifty degrees, a two- 
inch pipe at the ridge will feed three one and onc-hal£ 



PIPING XAEROW HOUSES. 



Ill 



inch returns under each bench, or, if the nnder-bencb 
system is to be nsed, a two-inch flow on each side will 
feed two one and one-half inch returns. Still another 
method would be to use two one and one-half incli flow 
23ipes under each bench, to feed the same number of 
returns. 

The heating surface will be most efficient if it is 
distributed evenly under the benches, but as they will 
then occupy considerable space that could be occupied 
by mushroom beds (Fig. 58) or for other purposes, it will 
generally be preferable to group them under the side 
benches. 

In building the coils, cast-iron headers, or, better, 
manifolds built up of Ts and nipjiles, can be used at one 




riG. 63. coMBiisrED piping for forcing house, 
150X30 feet; 65 degrees. 

end of straight runs, but on account of danger from 
the unequal expansion of the pipes, a mitre should be 
arranged if headers are to be used at both ends. The 
coils can be carried across the end of tlie house and end 
in headers at the center, to which branches from the 
feed pipe can be attached, as in Fig. 64. 

The overhead mains can be fastened to the posts by 
means of cast-iron brackets, while under the bench they 



112 



GREEKHOUSE COXSTKUCTION. 



can be supported by pipe hooks upon the bench legs. 
The vertical coils can be fastened in the same way, and 
the horizontal coils can be suj^ported as in Fig. 63, or 
upon pieces of gas pipe suspended from the bench cross- 
bearers by iron hooks, as seen in Figs. 58 and G2. 

VALVES AND EXPAXSION TANK. 

In order to regulate the flow of the water through 
the coils, there should be angle or gate valves upon the 
returns, or upon the branch, feed pipes, and if it is desir- 
able to arrange the house so that heat can be shut off for 




-'%ii4^ 



FIG. 64. ARRANGEMENT OF THE COILS. 

a portion of the winter, there should be valves on both 
the flow and return mains where they enter the house, 
with a draw-off cock so tliat the water can be removed. 

The expansion tank should be raised as high above 
the mains as possible, and connected with it (at the 
highest point, in case the piping is down hill), by a pipe 
from one to two inches in diameter, according to the 
extent of the system. Tlie elevation of the tank in no 
way affects the circulation, as it merely raises the boiling 



HOT AVATEIl UNDEK-PKESSUKE. 113 

point of the water. The tank may be of galvanized iron, 
without a cover, with the expansion pipe connected with 
the bottom, and an overflow pipe attached about two- 
thirds the way up the side, or a riveted boiler-iron closed 
tank with the same connections and a water gauge on 
the side. 

HOT AVATER UNDER-PRESSURE. 

When the down-hill system is used, many florists 
combine a closed expansion tank with it. The tank 
should be of boiler-iron with top and bottom securely 
riveted on ; thus far it does not differ from those com- 
monly used in the open system. The only difference is 
that there is no vent in the top of the tank, and that 
there is a safety valve on the overflow, which, as in the 
open tank, carries the waste water to a drain. 

The closed tank has the same effect as does tiie 
elevated one, and merely raises the point to which the 
water can be heated without forming steam. One 
advantage of this is that, when water is carried at 220°, 
much less heating pipe is required than when it is only 
160°, but a serious objection is that it now has one of 
the faults of steam as, at this temperature, more heat 
will be carried up the chimney with the products of 
combustion, than when the water is 180°. It is an ex- 
cellent i^lan to have the house supplied with sufficient 
radiating surface to maintain the required temperature 
in the average winter weather with an 02:)en tank, but to 
have the system provided with a safety-valve, Avhich 
could be thrown on when it became necessary, in order 
to keep up the temperature when the thermometer goes 
down below zero. 

Unless the down-hill ^system, with the tank at the 
highest point, is used, air vents should be provided, 
wherever the pipe takes an upward turn, at the highest 
points. Air cocks can be used, or quai'ter-inch gas pipes 



114 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTIOJ^J. 

carried above the level of the expansion pipe will answer, 
and are 2)referablo if the tank is not much elevated. 

CIIAKGKS OF DIRECTION" AND LEVEL. 

If for any reason it becomes necessary to change tlie 
direction or the level of the pipes, it should be the least 
amount possible, and, in doing it, 45° ells, reducing 
tees, etc., should be used. If necessary, the main pipes 
can be changed from their course and run over or under 
an obstruction, and they can even be carried below the 
level of the heater, but it should not be done unless 
there is an abundant pressure. In all downward changes 
of level, the force required to bring the water back to its 
original level will be in proportion to the cooling that 
takes i)lace between the fall and rise. Every change in 
direction increases the friction and decreases the flow. 

CONNECTING THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS. 

If there is a range of houses to be connected with 
one system, the arrangements will need to be such as 
will suit the conditions. If, as is very convenient, the 
houses have a common head house, the heater can be 
situated in the center, and the feed mains can be carried 
along the wall of the head house, Just above the doors 
that open into the greenhouses, and the branches can 
be taken off from this. The returns can be connected 
in much the same way, but the return main will be below 
the level of the coils. 

FOUR-INCH HEATING PIPES. 

Although an expensive method of piping and heat- 
ing greenhouses, many florists prefer to use four-inch 
pipes. The jiipes must all be under the benches, upon 
substantial brick piers. If air vents are provided at fre- 
quent intervals the i)ipes may be level ; otherwise a slight 
down-hill arrangement will be preferable. The joints 
should be packed firmly Avith oakum or tarred rope, with 



HOT WATER HEATEKS. 



115 



iron cement or Portland cement between the layers, and 
at the outer edge of the joint. If the runs are long the 
pipes should rest on gas-jiipe rollers, that expansion and 
contraction may not break the joints. 

PIPIXG IK GEJSTERAL. 

Tlie same general rules as to the arrangement of the 
pipes apply to all kinds of houses, and will only need to 
be slightly modified to suit the various conditions. For 
large conservatories, particularly if the center of the 
house is filled with plants growing in the ground, it will 
be necessary to have all of the pipes arranged in stacks 
along the sides, or, if desired, cast-iron radiators can be 
used. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



HOT WATER HEATERS. 

In the illustrations of heaters j^resented, the selec- 
tion was made with the idea of showing the construction 
of different types rather than of advocating the use of 

any particular heat- 
er. While we can 
recommend most of 
these from our own 
experience, there 
are other heaters 
that may be fully as 
effective. 

The Carmody 
heater (Fig. 65) is 
selected as the tvpe 

65. CARMODY HEATER. ^f ^^^^ ^,^^f-^.^^ ;^^_ 

tional heaters. They are of a very durable construction 
and, like others of the class, possess the important 




FIG. 



IIG 



GREENHOUSE CONSTKUCTION". 



advjintagc of permitting the addition of other sections, 
should it at any time become necessary. The water cir- 







FIG. G6. HITCHINGS' HEATER. 

culation, for the most part, is vertical, and the flues are 
arranged to give an effective heating surface. 




FIG. 67. WEATHERED COISTICAL HEATER. 

In some respects similar to the Carmody, but differ- 
ing in being non-sectional, are such well-known heaters 



HOT WATER HEATERS. 



117 



as the Hitcliings, Sinit]i, ami Weathered, They differ 
principally in the arrangement of their fire surfaces. In 
the Hitcliings' corrugated heater, of which a longitud- 
inal section is shown in Fig. GG, the fire surface is 
increased by means of rounded corrugations, while, in 
the Smith, the corrugations are replaced by quite deep 
square cells. 

Few heaters, with equal grate areas, will surpass 
those of this class in the amount of heat they will fur- 
nish, or in the economy of their coal consumption. For 
cool houses, or when carrying 
about two-thirds of their full 
radiation, they give very satis- 
factory results. While their 
fire surface is very etfectively 
arranged, it is rather small for 
the grate area, and, in case 
the heaters are working up to 
their full capacity, in very 
cold weather, there will be a 
considerable loss of heat 
through the smoke flue. With 
these heaters, as with others, 
it is economy to select one 
that is a size larger than would 
be really necessary. For small 
greenhouses the Weathered 
Conical Heater (Fig. 67) or ^^^' ^^- spence hkater. 
others of similar construction will be found quite pow- 
erful and eflBcient. 

In Fig. 68 we present the Spence as showing the 
general form of the horizontal sectional heaters. The 
fire-pot is surrounded with a water jacket so that a fire- 
brick lining is not required. The sections are arranged 
parallel, one above the other, over the fire-pot. The 
construction of the flues is such as brings the products 




118 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 

of combustiou repeatedly in contact with the lieating 
surface, and if this is not sufficient to absorb all of the 
heat, the difficulty can be corrected by the addition of 
more sections. The first, third, and fifth sections are 
shown in Fig. G9, and the second and fourth in Fig 70. 
The water is spread out in a thin sheet in the sections 
and cannot enter the feed pipes until it has made a com- 
plete circuit of one section. By tlie arrangement of the 
water column in the rear, the water having passed through 
one section, is prevented from entering another. The 
points claimed for this heater are, economy of fuel, per- 
fect and rapid circulation, readiness of cleaning, few and 
tight joints, and, in case of leakage or breaks, the readi- 





FIG. 69. SPENCE HEATER. FIG. 70. SPENCE HEATER. 

(1st, 3d and 5th Sections.) (2d and 4th Sections.) 

ness with which repairs can be made. The Gurney, 
(No. 300 Series) and the Palace King have much the 
same construction, and are, very likely, fully as efficient. 
The Furman heaters may be taken as the type of the 
drop tube patterns. They are nsed either for steam or 
hot water, the small sizes generally being portable (Fig. 
71), and the large ones brick-set (Fig. 72). The Fur- 
man hot-water heater is constructed on principles almost 
exactly the reverse of those found in the Spence. It is 
not sectional in the small sizes, and yet, as the parts are 
screwed together, they can be taken apart if any of the 
tubes are broken. The cast-iron screw joints will prob- 



fioT WATER HEATEKS. 



lid 



ably never leak. It will be noted that the heating sur- 
face consists of oval drop tnbes, with a diaphragm in the 
center, so arranged that the water passes down on one 
side and up the other. As previously stated, the vertical 
circulation, as secured in the Furman, is the correct one, 
as there is less friction than in horizontal tubes or sec- 
tions. It gives a very rapid circulation, which is of 
importance in taking up the heat and, also, in giving it 
off in the coils. A happy illustration of the effect of a 
rapid circulation upon the amount of heat taken up by 
the water, is the wind blow- 
ing over a muddy road, the 
faster it moves, the more 
water it takes up. The 
faster the water travels past 
the fire, the more heat will 
it absorb, and the less will 
pass up the smoke pipe. 

In the Furman, the at- 
tempt is made to secure the 
direct action of the fire upon 
the tubes, by means of lat- 
eral draft between them ; 
this also tends to secure 
perfect combustion to the ^i^- '^i- -tUKMAif port- 
very edge of the fire-pot. ^^le heater {Steam). 
From their shape and arrangement, very little cleaning 
of the flues is necessary. 

Although constructed upon a general plan exactly 
opposite that of the Spence, from our trial of the two 
heaters here, it is not possible to decide which is the 
correct one ; if anything, however, the Spence is more 
economical of fuel. 

"Where the size of the plant will warrant, it is better 
to have two heaters in a battery, than one very large one, 
and where two large heaters will do the work on a irinclif 




1^0 



GREEN"H6uSE OONSTRUCTIOl^. 



it is (Icsii-iiblc to luivo ii third one to tall buck on in sovci'e 
weather, or in case of an accident to one of the others. 
If a single heater la}-ge enongh to do the work in the 
most severe weather is used, it will be twice as large as 
will be required in the mild weather of Spring and Fall, 
but, by having two heaters in a battery, one or both can 
be used as may be necessary. 

For use in small conservatories, there arc many 
forms of portable hot water heaters, of which that made 
by Hitcliings & Co., shown in Fig. 73, may be taken as 
a sami)le. INIost of them have coal magazines, and run 
for eioht or ten honrs without attention. From the 




FIG. 72. rURMAN BRICK-SET HEATER {Steam). 

simplicity of the hot water apparatus as first used, it will 
be seen that good results can be obtained from almost 
any kind of a heater that provides for a proper connec- 
tion. A simple can of copper, zinc, or galvanized iron, 
resting over an oil stove, will provide heat for a small 
conservatory ; but, if some arrangement can be made for 
increasing the heating surface, better results will be 
obtained. 

THE SIZE OF HEATER TO USE. 

Having determined upon the kind of heater to use, 
the size to obtain is of considerable imiDortance. All 



THE SIZE OF HEATER TO USE. 



121 



groonhouso heaters are rated by the mamifacturers as 
equal to supplying a certain number of square feet of 
radiation. Altliongh most of them will do what is 
claimed for them at a jnnch, it Avill be at the expense of 
an excessive amount of fuel and labor. The most eco- 
nomical results with liot water can only be obtained with 
a thin, slow fire in a large fire box, and as a rule it will 
be well to deduct at least 
twenty-five per cent, from 
the manufacturers' rating 
in estimating the capac- 
ity of a heater. 

The comparative area 
of grate and fire surface 
in heaters varies with their 
arrangement to such an 
extent that, provided it is 
ample to absorb the heat 
produced by the combus- 
tion, the latter may be left 
out of the question for the 
present. Basing the re- 
quired grate area ujion the 
number of square feet of 
radiating surface, it has 
been stated that for econ- 
omy the ratio of one to ' — ' ^s^^/^cr-oa. 
two hundred should not fig. 73. hitchings' base 
be exceeded. With large burning heater. 
heaters this should suffice, provided the radiation itself 
was ample, but in small establishments, with less than 
one thousand feet of radiating surface, the proportion of 
one square foot of grate surface to one hundred and fifty 
square feet of radiating surface will be none too much for 
the economical consumption of fuel. In establishments 
where cheap fuel is used and a night fireman employed, 




122 GKEENIIOUSE CONSTRUCTION?. 

one S([ii:irc foot of grate surface will hnrn ciiougli fuel, 
with a good draft, to siipi)ly iwo luindrcd and ilfty 
square feet of radiation. 

Of course, the ratio of radiating and glass surface 
must be based, in addition to the temperature to be 
maintained, upon the climate, the exposure, the con- 
struction of the house, etc., but, as a rule, the average 
temperature in a greenhouse may be taken as fifty de- 
grees, and one foot of radiating surface will heat about 
four square feet of glass. For an establishment then of 
2,400 square feet of glass, 600 square feet of radiating 
surface will be necessary, and a heater with a grate con- 
taining four square feet will be required. If it contains 
8,000 square feet of glass, 2,000 square feet of radiation 
and ten square feet of grate surface will be necessary, 
and for 10,000 square feet of glass the radiation and 
grate surfaces will be respectively 4,000 and sixteen 
square feet. In the first two cases the fires can be left at 
night w^ithout attention for eight hours in zero weather, 
but would require stoking once in three or four hours 
when the grate surface is as small as given in the last 
example. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

STEAM HEATING. 

With the wonderful growth of commercial floral 
establishments during the j^ast ten years, a need arose 
for something more efficient and applicable to larger 
houses than the old-fashioned flue, or the hot water sys- 
tem with four-inch pipes, and it was found iu the modern 
steam greenhouse-heating plants. In a general way, the 
same rules and method of piping would answer here as 
were given for hot water. 

In steam heating we have the choice of two methods, 
high or low pressure. In the first it is preferable to use 
wrought-iron boilers rather than the average one of cast- 
iron, although some cast-iron tubular boilers are claimed 
by the inventors to withstand higher pressures than 
those of wrought-iron. This method of heating is par- 
ticularly applicable in large plants with more than 
12,000 square feet of glass, where a regular night fire- 
man can be employed. The principal arguments in its 
favor are that less radiating surface is required than with 
low pressure steam or with water, and that steam can be 
carried to considerable distances, thus centralizing the 
boilers, and enabling the most extensive ranges of house 
to be heated from one boiler-room. For small plants 
the low pressure system, carrying a maximum of five 
pounds pressure, and generally not over two pounds, is 
preferable. 

STEAM BOILERS AKD THEIR LOCATIOlSr. 

Some of the horizontal tubular boilers are generally 
used and give general satisfaction. For low jjressure 

133 



124 GREENHOUSK CONSTRUCTIOH. 

there ;ire dozens of ciisi-iroii ]K)ilers, each of "which has 
2>oints that, if we can believe tlie inventors, makes Ids 
the best; really, however, the diiference in their real 
efficiency is very slight. For small houses the locomo- 
tive boiler seems to be a cheap and economical heater. 
They are also used with success for hot water. As in 
the hot water heaters, the requirements for a good steam 
boiler ai-e ample grate surface, good draft, and a fire 
surface at right angles to the draft, with the flues so 
arranged as to absorb the greatest possible amount of 
heat. 

In locating the boiler, pains should be taken to have 
it low enough so that the water level will be at least two 
feet below the lowest heating pipe, but if this is not pos- 
sible without sinking the boiler in dark, poorly drained 
pits, steam traps can be used, particularly with high 
pressure, that will remove the water from the return, 
and lift it to the water level of the boiler ; with low 
pressure they work more slowly and are less satisfactory. 

ARRANGEMENT OF THE STEAM PIPES. 

The method given for the arrangement of the hot 
water pipes can be followed with few changes for steam, 
whether high or low pressure. The main for each house 
should be carried along under the ridge to the farther 
end, running on a slight decline, where it should be 
broken up to supply the coils. If constructed with 
manifolds, a manifold valve should be used, or, if in sep- 
arate lines, all but one pipe on each side should be 
arranged so that it can be shut off in mild weather. In 
making the coils, and in fact all connections, great care 
should be taken to allow for expansion. 

For short coils, one-inch pipe may be used, but if of 
considerable length, one and one-fourth inch pipe is j^re- 
ferred by most florists. The slope of the coils should be 
towards the boiler, when the flow is carried overhead, in 



AMOUNT OF PIPE FOll STEAM. 125 

order to return the condensed water. At the end of the 
house the returns should be collected into one pipe, which 
should enter the boiler below the water level. 

There should be an automatic air valye on each of 
the coils at the lower end, and on the return, near the 
boiler, it is well to have both a valve and a check valve. 

As recommended for hot water, it is well to have the 
pipes somewhat distributed, and if, in addition to the 
overhead mains, one return pipe is carried along on the 
wall plate, it will tend to warm the cold air that enters 
through the ventilators, or cracks in the glass, before it 
comes in contact with the plants. With plants like 
cucumbers and roses, that are susceptible to cold drafts, 
this will be found a decided advantage. 

AMOUNT OF PIPE FOR STEAM. 

The amount of pipe, both for mains and coils, will 
be much less than when hot Avater is used. For the 
main it can be reckoned that a 

IVs iiicli pipe wiU supply 200 .scpiare feet of radiation. 

2 " " " 400 " " " 
2i/„ .i .. a 800 " " " 

3 " " " 1,600 " " " 

4 " " " 3,200 " " " 

The surface of the steam pipes is from thirty to fifty 
per cent, warmer than that of hot water pipes, and a 
corresponding decrease of the necessary radiating surface 
can be made. For low pressure steam, in addition to the 
mains, a house will require for each 1,000 square feet of 
glass, to warm it to 

45'^ to 50"^, 140 square feet, or 300 linear feet, IVi inch pii)e. 
50° to 60°, 175 " " " 400 " " " " " 

60° to 70°, 225 " " " 500 

With high pressure, a considerable reduction can be 
made from the above. 

In figuring the capacity of a boiler, about fifteen 
feet of heating (fire) surface should be reckoned as one 



126 GREENHOUSE CONSTltUCTION. 

horse power, and in estimating the radiation that it will 
supply, from fifty to ninety square feet of radiation per 
horse power, according to the pressure, may be relied 
upon with a good boiler. If we consider that for a tem- 
perature of fifty degrees, which may be taken as about 
an average, one square foot of radiating surface will take 
care of six square feet of glass, one horse jiower will be 
sufficient for 300 to 540 square feet of glass. As in the 
case with hot water heaters, a large steam boiler will 
handle more glass to a square foot of grate than a 
small one. 

The size of grate for a given glass area will ak;o de- 
pend upon the draft of the chimney, the skill of the 
fireman and the method of stoking used. With a poor 
draft a much smaller amount of coal can be burned, per 
square foot of grate, than when the draft is strong, and 
a grate area considerably larger than in the latter case 
will be required ; the same is true of a dirty fire as com- 
pared with a clean one. For establishments with less 
than 10,000 to 12,000 square feet of glass, a night fire- 
man can hardly be afforded, and a large grate should be 
iised upon which a slow fire can be burned that will last 
from six to ten hours. For this purpose the grate should 
have an area of from fifteen to eighteen or even twenty 
feet, according to the climate and other modifying con- 
ditions. On the other hand, when a strong draft can be 
secured, and in large establishments, where a night fire- 
man is employed, one square foot of grate can readily 
handiC one thousand square feet of glass. In other 
words, a steam l)()iler with twelve square feet of grate 
can be made to heat with economy 12,000 square feet of 
glass. Under favorable conditions, eight square feet of 
grate will heat a house containing the above amount of 
glass to fifty degrees. 

The matter is so important tliat it is well to again 
mention the advisability of putting in a boiler Avith a 



ANOTHER METHOD OF PIPING. 



127 



capacity twenty-five per cent, larger than is required 
to do the work, and of arranging for ample radiating 
surface. 

The only other matter of real importance in arrang- 
ing a system is to have the pipes with such a fall (one 
inch in twenty feet will answer) that the water of 
condensation can readily drain off. This can best be 
secured, if there is a gradual descent in the j)ipes from 




FIG. 74. INTERIOR OF STEAM-HEATED HOUSE. 

the point where the main enters the house to Avhcre the 
return leaves. If it becomes necessary to change the 
direction of the slope, a one-inch drip pipe should be 
connected with the underside of the main, at the point 
where the direction of the pipe changes, and joined to 
the returns. 

ANOTHER METHOD OF PIPING. 

Although the overhead main will generally give best 
satisfaction, particularly in long houses, it is sometimes 



1^8 GKEEJSrnOUSE COXSTKUCTIOK. 

preferred to have them all under the bcucli. The coil 
can commence at the end of the house nearest the boiler, 
and with a gradual fall to the other end, from which 
point the return can descend to the heater. These coils 
can be underneath the side benches or in the walk, and, 
if desired, in wide houses under the center bench, also. 
This method of distributing the pij)cs will be particu- 
larly desirable Avhen the plants are placed out on the 
benches. 

In short houses the coils can run entirely around the 
house, although the short runs will be preferable. With 
low jjressure it is not advisable to have coils more than 
two hundred feet in length. Even for houses of this 
length, it will be very convenient to have the different 
houses in the range connected in the center by a cross 
gallery, in which the boilers may be placed, and through 
which the mains and returns can be run and connected 
with coils which will be half as long as the house. Fig. 
74 shows one method of piping a small house for steam, 
the furnace-room being at the farther end of the house. 

Various methods of arranging steam pipes are shown 
in Fio-s. 58-62. As a rule, a two-inch steam main 
can be used instead of a three-inch hot water main, and 
a one-inch steam pipe will be equivalent to an inch and 
one-half hot water pipe in the coils for low pressure, and 
a two-inch pipe if the steam is under high pressure. 



CHAPTER XX. 

COMPARATIVE MERITS OF STEAM AXD HOT WATER. 

The followiug are among the chiims made by advo- 
cates of steam for their favorite heating system: (1) A 
lower first cost ; (2) abihty to maintain a steady temper- 
ature ; (3) readiness with which the temperature can be 
raised or lowered if desired ; (4) economy of coal con- 
sumption ; (5) ease with which repairs can be made. 

The hot water men admit that these claims hold to 
a large extent against hot water in four-inch pipes, but 
they contend that the men who make these claims have 
made no comparison with modern well-arranged liot 
water plants, and that, under proper conditions, the lat- 
ter system is preferable. Those who favor hot water 
claim for that method that at the most only the first 
claim of the steam men will stand, and that on the 
other points, hot water can make as good, if not better 
showing. 

With regard to the first cost, as stated before, the 
amount of radiation required for hot water with an open 
tank is about forty j^er cent, more than with steam, 
which will make the cost of the plant about twenty j)er 
cent, more than the cost of a steam plant. Under presr 
sure, however, the cost will be little if any more, but we 
shall lose in economy of fuel, as compared with the open 
tank system, although it retains all of the other advan- 
tages claimed for hot water. With a fireman giving 
constant attention to the boilers, a steady pressure can 
be maintained, and of course the pipes being all of the 
time at the same temperature, there need be but little 
9 129 



130 GKEENUOUSE CONSTKUCTION. 

variation in the house, provided the pressure is raised or 
lowered, or the valves are used to reguLate the amount of 
radiation, according to the outside temperature. 

In small plants, where regular firemen are not em- 
ployed both for night and day, the pressure will vary to 
a greater or less extent. In well-arranged plants, boilers 
can be left in severe weather for six or eight hoars, and 
pressure will be maintained, provided everything is all 
right ; but if for any reason the water in the boiler drops 
below 21:i°, the steam pipes will cool, and serious harm 
may result. With hot water, circulation will go on so 
long as there is fire in the heater, and the water in the 
pipes will give off heat even after that, until they cool to 
the temperature of the house. It can then be claimed 
for hot water, and no one can deny it, that in small 
plants, liot 'Water is safer than steam to use, and can he 
left for a longer time without attention. 

It is also urged in favor of steam, that in long runs 
the hot water becomes cooled, and that the temperature 
at the lower end of the coils will be less than at the 
other. In a short house of one hundred and fifty feet 
or less, this can be counteracted by using the overhead 
main and underbench returns, and even in long houses 
the difference, with this method of piping, should not 
exceed five degrees in a house two hundred feet long. 
If the continuous coils of one and one-half or two-inch 
pipe running through the house and back are used, 
which may be done where a fall of one inch in ten feet 
can be secured, there may be even less difference than is 
found in steam pipes. 

There is, then, some ground for the claim of hot 
water men that, even compared with large plants in 
which night firemen are employed, the temperature at the 
opposite ends of the houses loill he as even as ivith steam, 
and that the hot 'water siistem properly arranged will 
maintain for eight or ten hours a temperature as even as 
will he secured from steam by the average fireman. 



EXPERIMENTAL TESTS. 131 

The claim that steam can be used to better advan- 
tage when it is desired to raisa or lower the temperature 
of the house, only applied against water in large pipes. 
If desired, the entire circulation in the hot water coils 
can be shut off, and the amount of he.it in the water in 
the pipes if given off at once would not raise the temper- 
ature of the house a single degree, and distributed over 
an hour or so, would not be noticed. With four-inch 
pipes containing ten times the quantity of water, and, 
especially as valves were not always provided for shut- 
ting off the circulation, the heat given off was sufficient 
to necessitate the early opening of the ventilators on 
bright mornings and a corresponding injury from cold 
drafts upon the plants was caused. With small pipes, 
starting with cold water or with a moderately low fire, a 
normal temperature of the pipes can be secured as 
(piickly as with steam. When the question of economy 
of fuel is considered, the general opinion of those who 
have carefully tested steam against the modern hot water 
system, is that the latter is about twenty-five per cent. 
cheaper. 

EXPERIMENTAL TESTS. 

There are on record a large number of so-called 
tests of the economy of steam and hot water, but in 
nearly every case the hot water was in four-inch pipes. 
The only experimental tests that have come to tlie 
notice of the writer, where the houses and jjlants were 
of similar construction, and tiie tests were carried on at 
the same time, was the one by Prof. MaynarJ, at the 
Massachusetts Experiment Station at Amherst, and those 
of the author at the Michigan Experiment Station. In 
each case piping was arranged in both houses with over- 
head mains and underbench coils, and although an 
attcmi)t was made to have each })lant as perfect as possi- 
ble, the conditions for either system were no more favo?- 



133 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 



able than could be secured in any forcing house. The 
houses at Amherst were seventy-five by eighteen feet, 
and those at Lansing twenty by fifty feet each. 

■ The tests were continued in each place for two years 
with the following results : 





Average Temperatuhe. 


Coal Consumed. 




Water House. 


Steam Hou.se. 


Water House. 


Steam House. 


Aiiilier.st, 
Liuisiiig, 
Average, 


52.80° 

54.87° 
. 53.84° 


50.80° 
53.02^ 
51.91° 


00.54 lbs. 
94.53 " 
82.04 " 


91.48 lbs. 
114.53 " 
103.01 " 



Or almost exactly twenty-five per cent, more fuel was 
required for steam than with Avater, although the steam 
houses averaged about two degrees cooler. 

In both places the hot water house was more ex- 
posed to the cold winds than the steam house, and, at 
Lansing, where tiie results were less favorable for water 
than at Amherst, although the houses were piped for 
maintaining a temperature of forty-five to fifty degrees, 
they Avere kept at a temperature of fifty-five degrees, 
necessitating a considerably higher temperature of the 
water than should have been carried for the greatest 
economy of fuel, which would make less diiference with 
the steam system. In proof of this, additional pipes 
have now been put in, and the hot water house is now 
carried at sixty degrees with no more fuel than was used 
at fifty-five degrees. 

COMPARATIVE COST OF FUEL. 

AVith steam it is claimed that a cheaper grade of 
fuel can be used than with hot water, but boilers for hot" 
water are now made that can secure better results from 
soft coal than is obtained by steam, provided similar care 
is given. It is also claimed for steam that it admits of 
the boilers being located in a battery at one point, ratiier 
than scattered in different houses as is generally the case 
with hot water. AVith modern systems of piping, the 



CONCLUSIONS. 133 

same aiTangement can be used, and the water can be car- 
ried in large mains with less waste than when steam is 
used. 

Regarding the last claim in favor of steam, i. e., the 
economy of repairs, it may be said that when the same 
size pipe is used for coils in both systems, a break can 
be repaired with the same ease in one as in the other. 
Moreover, there is more likely to be a break in the steam 
boiler than in the hot water heater, and while a steam 
return is rusted through in from five to seven years, a 
hot water pipe will be found in good condition inside, 
and the outside can be kept from rusting by painting 
once in two or three years with lampblack and oil. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

Considered from the point of efficiency only, there 
is little to choose between the systems, although the 
steam heater will need more constant attention, and 
ordinarily the temperature of the houses will be less 
regular than with hot water, either with open tank or 
under pressure. 

The steam plant will cost fifteen to twenty per cent, 
less than the open tank water system, and somewhat less 
than the pressure system, and when the first cost of the 
plant is any object, this may decide for that system. On 
the other hand, the cost of fuel with a well-arranged hot 
water plant, will be twenty to twenty-five per cent, less 
than with steam, and as this will j^ay for the extra cost 
of the plant in three or four years, it becomes a matter 
well worth considering. It then comes to the question 
whether there shall be a large cost at fii'st, with a com- 
paratively small outlay for fuel and repairs, or a smaller 
first cost, and a larger outlay for fuel and maintenance. 

Everything considered, the man who has less than 
10,000 square feet of glass, will find hot water with an 
open tank the best method to use. Above 12,000 feet of 



134 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 

glass, it will pay to have a iiiglit fireman, anO, as the 
first cost for a phmt of this size is considerable, the 
average florist will prefer to nse steam, although liot 
water will give fully as good results, and the extra ex- 
pense of the plant will be saved in fuel within four years. 
So far as expense for fuel is concerned, hot water under 
pressure will be classed with steam ; it gives more even 
results, however, and the cost of the system is little if 
any more. lu arriving at these conclusions, no account 
is taken of the effect of the different systems upon plant 
growth, as we believe that when equally- well cared for 
there will be little or no difference. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

HEATING SMALL CONSERVATORIES. 

For amateur conservatories, with over 300 square 
feet of glass, unless joined to a residence which is 
heated by hot water or steam, it will be found desirable 
to use some of the small portable hot water heaters that 
are manufactured by several firms. When these are used 
in connection with a well arranged system of piping, the 
care of the house is greatly simplified, and there will be 
little risk of injury to the plants by cold. It Avill be a 
desirable thing, if the dwelling is heated with stoves or 
a hot air furnace, to purchase a heater large enough to 
warm a part or all of the house, and put in pipes and 
radiators. 

In arranging the heating system for the conserva- 
tory, the heater should be placed in the cellar of the 
house, and the feed pipes should pass up through the 
floor and connect with the radiating pipes, which are 
generally best if arranged in a Avail coil, with manifolds 



i:he baejtard heater. 135 

at each end. An air valve will be needed at the liigher 
end, and an expansion tank should be connected with 
some part of the system. It should be of galvanized 
iron, although an old paint keg would answer. It should 
hold a gallon for each hundred feet of one and one-fourth 
inch pipe, and a gallon for the heater and mains. If the 
tank is situated where harm to floor or walls will be done 
if it boils over, it is well to have a tight cover on the 
tank and run an overflow pipe from half-way up the side 
of the tank to a drain. 

For conservatories which are too large to heat with 
an oil stove, a home-made water heater might be used. 
The radiating coil and attachments would be similar to 
those just described. A small heater could be made by 
using a small coil of one-inch pipe containing eight 
linear feet of heating surface, inside one of the large 
sized kerosene heating stoves. This would warm one 
hundred and fifty linear feet of one-inch pipe, and would 
heat a conservatory six by ten feet with three sides and 
roof of glass. Were the conservatory upon a veranda 
where only the roof, side and one end were exposed, the 
capacity would be sufficient to warm about six by fifteen 
feet, and if the roof were of wood, it could heat a space 
eight by twenty feet. 

THE BARNAED HEATER. 

In 1890 Charles Barnard described in the American 
Garden a very simple heater that gave good satisfaction 
in a detached greenhouse. The heater was of zinc with 
four tubes of one-inch gas pipe (Fig. 75 ^); the diam- 
eter was six inches and the height twenty-seven inches. 
From this, connections were made with the coils which 
were of two-inch pipe, although one and one-quarter 
inch ^\Y>Q Avould be preferable. The heater was placed 
over an oil stove or gas burner, and was surrounded by a 
jacket of sheet iron (Fig. 75 B) from which a small pipe 



136 



GREEKHOUSE CONSTKUCTIOK. 



rau to the outside of tlie house to convey the smoke and 
gases. Another form of heater is made in the shape of 
a hollow truncated cone, nine inches in diameter at the 
bottom and six at the top, and twenty-four inches high. 
The water is one inch in thickness and is confined between 
the inner and outer shells of the heater. This is placed 
over an oil stove and arranged in much the same way as 
the one last described. 



HEATING BY MEAXS OF FLUES. 

In small houses where one does not have the means 
to put in hot water or steam, fairly good results can be 

obtained with the old-fash- 
ioned flue. This consists of a 
furnace in which the fuel is 
burned, and a horizontal chim- 
ney passing through the house. 
If the house is not over fifty 
feet in length, and if a rise of 
two or more feet can be se- 
cured, a fair draft can be ob- 
tained by having the chimney 
at the farther end ; but in 
longer houses, or where the 
flues must be run on a level, 
it is best to bring them back, 
SO that they can enter a chim- 
BAEITAKD HEATER. j^^y built over the furnace. 
A direct connection with the chimney can be made 
when the fire is first started, and then, after the chimney 
has become warm, a damper can be turned which will 
force the smoke to pass around through the house, giving 
off its heat as it goes. The furnace can be constructed 
for burning either coal, or wood cut in lengths of from 
three to five feet. A grate containing three to four 
square feet will answer for a house containing COO s({uare 




THE POLMAISE SYSTEM. 137 

feet of glass. If wood is used, the furnace should be 
eighteen inches wide inside, and of the required length, 
but no increase of the size of the grate will be necessary. 
There should be an ash pit of suitable size, and iron 
doors should be set in the masonry at the end of the 
furnace, for both the fire-pot and ash pit. The top of 
the furnace may be supjoorted either by a brick arch or 
by heavy iron bars. The inner lining of the heater 
should be of fire brick laid in fire clay, and the same 
material should be used for the first fifteen feet of 
the flue. Beyond this point, common stock brick will 
answer, forming a flue eight by twelve to sixteen inches, 
or eight to ten-inch glazed tile may be used. 

For a house twelve feet in width, one flue will 
answer; but if fifteen to twenty feet wide, it is well 
either to have a return flue on the other side, or to 
divide the flue and carry wp a branch on each side, 
either under the walks or beneath the side benches. 

A hot water coil can be economically combined with 
a flue by using cross-pieces of one and one-half inch 
pipe, connected by return bends, across the side walls and 
supporting the top of the heater, and connecting them 
with the radiating pipes. If a flue is used care should 
be taken that no woodwork comes in contact with the 
bricks within thirty feet of the furnace. When houses 
are very long, furnaces may be jDlaced at both ends and 
the flues can be carried half the length of the house and 
brought back on the opposite side. 

THE POLMAISE SYSTEM. 

The Polmaise system was so-called from the French 
town where it was first used. The original system con- 
sisted in bringing a current of air over a heated surface, 
and then carrying it into the greenhouse, on its way 
passing througli a wet blanket, that its drying effect 
might be lessened. The system itself is of no value, but 



lo8 GREENHOUSE COKSTRUCTIOK. 

a modified form of it may be used in coiniection with a 
flue. By building an air chamber abound the furnace 
and admitting tlie air, much as in common hot air fur- 
naces, it will be warmed, and can be carried through the 
house in tiles much as are the products of combustion. 

The cost of a flue is less than half that of a hot 
water or steam plant, and especially if combined with 
hot water, as described, very satisfactory results can be 
obtained. The modified Polmaise system could also be 
employed with profit, if the coil is not used. 

EIEE HOTBEDS. 

In addition to warming hotbeds by means of decom- 
posing manure, various other methods of heating have 
been tried, the simplest being a modified form of the 
ordinary flue as just described. The beds can be single, 
for sash six feet long, or can be double span-roofed struc- 
tures, with a row of sash on each side. For the single 
beds the arch or furnace need not be over one foot wide 
inside, eighteen inches high, and four or five feet long. 
It should be arched over with brick and the whole then 
covered with soil. In order to secure i^roper slope for 
the flues, the hotbeds should be located on a hillside 
sloping to the south, and the flues should have a slope of 
about one foot in twenty, although more is desirable. 
The tile used for the flues should be glazed for the first 
twenty feet at least, and six inches in diameter, and 
should be laid in two lines, three feet apart ; at the 
farther end the tile should be turned up at right-angles 
forming a chimney. An ordinary hotbed frame should 
be set over this. The soil at the furnace end should 
then be spread on, covering the arch to the depth of 
twelve to fifteen inches, and the pipes at the chimney 
end about six inches. Tlie draft can be regulated by a 
plate of iron resting against the end of the arch. The 
structure wdll last several years, and will prove a great 



STEAM A]S"D HOT WATER HEAT. 139 

convenience where one does not have a greenhouse in 
which to start vegetable phmts, and where wood is cheaj"). 

For the span-roof hotbed, two arches or furnaces 
and four fines, arranged as in tlie otlier case, will be 
required. 

STEAM AND HOT WATER HEAT FOR HOTBEDS. 

If it is desired to warm hotbeds by means of steam, 
it can be done by running a one and one-quarter inch 
steam pipe up in one line of four-inch drain tile, and 
back in another line laid as described for the flues with 
the narrow beds, while fonr lines would be required for 
a bed twelve feet wide. When exhaust steam is at hand 
it can be used without the steam pipe by merely dis- 
charging it into the tile. 

A frame can be heated by hot water or steam if a 
two-inch hot water or an inch and a quarter steam pipe is 
run around the inside, next to the plank. Boards should 
then be placed so as to shut off all direct heat from the 
plants. If a crack two inches wide is left between the 
top of the boards and the glass, the heat will be diffused 
and will not dry out the plants. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

COMMERCIAL ESTABLISHMEISTTS. 

A florist just starting in business may be compelled 
by lack of means to commence upon a small scale. 
While he would find a lean-to house the cheapest to 
erect — provided he built it against the south wall of a 
building — the excess of cost for a span-roof house would 
be so slight, and the results obtained would be so much 
greater, that he would be wise in selecting that form for 
a house. The size for the house must be determined by 



140 



GREEKHOUSE CONSTRUCTION'. 



the business to be done, but for most purposes a house 
of twenty feet in width is preferable to anything nar- 
rower, and an enterprising florist should be able to utilize 
one that is fifty feet long. It is desirable to have both 



TiO 



SJ^ 



J 1 



'PQTTJIVa ££. 'UCI-t 



irOP'^ 'F^OO/lf 



Hor 



-P 



inr I JBASrCETS 



orriei: 



Tabi^t 



Sale,-^ TfOOM 



HOOSZ 



PL/SfYTS ^ 



&J 



©OOz 



'U>L/SI 



FIG. 7G. PLAN FOR A SMALL ESTABLISHMENT. 

a cool and a warm house, and this can be secured by run- 
ning a glass partition across the house. 

If this amount of glass is not sufficient, a second 
house can be built similar to the first one, and then he 
will have one house to be kept at a temperature of fifty- 
five to sixty degrees and another that can be kept at 
forty-five to fifty degrees. Although other houses are 



COMMERCIAL ESTABLISHMENTS. 141 

desirable, a good selection of plants can be grown in two 
such houses with fair success. If business develops, as 
it should, it will be desirable to add a rose house. This 
should be of the three-quarter sj^an form, eighteen and 
one-half feet wide, and will give an opportunity for the 
erection of a north side propagating house, which can not 
only be used for propagating, but will be excellent for 
ferns, violets, pansies, and for tiie starting of seeds and 
bulbs. The even span houses could run north and south 
with a workroom at the north end twenty-five by twenty- 
five feet, while the rose house could join the end of the 
workroom and run east and west, as shown in Fig. 76. 
A convenient arrangement for the workroom and store 
is shown in the illustration, which can readily be under- 
stood. 

If still other enlargement of the establishment be- 
comes necessary, the additional buildings can be put up 
parallel to the present ones, or they can be run out the 
other way from the workroom. Another method would 
be by lengthening the buildings already put up, but for 
small establishments it will hardly be desirable to extend 
them beyond a length of one hundred and fifty feet. 

In addition to the general* florist and vegetable 
grower, we find to-day engaged in greenhouse work 
many specialists, and among these the commercial rose 
grower and the lettuce grower, from the extent of their 
business, are especially worthy of notice. As in every- 
thing else, we find, as a rule, that these specialists who 
have turned their every effort to the doing of one thing 
well, are masters of their business, and have been quick 
to avail themselves of all the latest improvements. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

ROSE HOUSES. 

The form and general arrangement of the liouses 
.used for forcing roses, is i)ractically the same the country 
over, and when one speaks of a "rose house," he is 
readily understood. A rose house may be briefly defined 
as a three-quarter span greenhouse, about eighteen feet 
wide, with two narrow beds at the sides, and with two 
somewhat wider ones in the center. No form of house 
lias been tried for this i)urposc that is on the whole as 
satisfactory as this, of which a good example of an ex- 
terior will be found in Fig. 77. 

They are cheapest to build and easiest to heat if con- 
structed with wooden walls up to the plate, as shown in 
Fig. 83, but many of our best rose growers are of the 
opinion that the extra cost of erection and maintenance is 
more than repaid by the results obtained, when there is 
from eighteen to twenty-four inches of glass in the south 
wall and ends under the plate. There seems to be a diver- 
sity of opinion as to the best width for rose houses, the 
range being from sixteen to twenty feet ; but it is the gen- 
eral idea that in the houses sixteen feet wide there is a 
lack of economy of space, unless the walks are made 
rather narrow. With the side walks eighteen to twenty 
inches wide, and a walk between the center benches with 
a width of twelve inches, there will be room for four 
benclios of average widths ; but for convenience the walks 
at the side should not be less than two feet in width, and 
the center walk from fifteen to eighteen inches. A con- 
venient width for the front bench is thirty inches, which 

14^ 



EOSE HOUSES. 143 

will answer for three rows of plants ; the center beds 
should be three feet and six inches, each holding four 
rows, and the back bed two feet in width with two rows 
of plants. If the front wall is made six inches, and the 
rear one eight inches in thickness, with the benches 
set out to prevent drip from the plate, a house with 
the above widths for walks and benches will be about 
eighteen feet and six inches to the outside of the walls. 
In locating the height of the benches, the tops of the 
cross bearers for the front and back bench should be 
about twenty inches below the plates ; the south center 
bench should be at the same height as the front bench, 
and the north one about eighteen inches higher. Some 
growers prefer to have both of the center benches level, 
but if careful attention is given to the watering, rather 
better results will be obtained if they are given a slight 
slope to the south, say of eight inches iu the width of 
one bench or of eighteen inches between the walks 
(Fig. 63). 

It is quite desirable in arranging the roof to have 
the ridge and purlin come over the walks. If an iron 
frame-work is used with a truss at the ridge, there will 
be no necessity for a support under the ridge ; but if the 
roof is of wood, particularly if there are no princi])al 
rafters, a post should be used, and the ridge should be 
so located that the post can pass down at the north side 
of the center bench. While one purlin with one row 
of posts — in addition to the one under the ridge — will 
support a roof of this width, lighter material can be 
employed, and there will be less trouble from drip if two 
of each are used, with the posts coming down at the 
south side of each of the center benches. 

Particularly in rose forcing houses, it is desirable to 
have the slope of the roof arranged to trap as much as 
possible of light and heat from the sun during the win- 
ter months, and, everything else considered^ the south 



144 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 




BOSE HOUSES. 



Uo 




10 



146 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 

pitch of the roof should slope at the rate of about two 
feet for every three feet in width of house. With the 
ridge posts at a distance of fourteen feet from the out- 
side of the south wall, the bottom of the ridge should 
be about eight feet higher than the top of the south wall, 
or twelve feet from the ground level, with the south wall 
four feet in height. This will require a rafter slightly 
less than sixteen feet in length on the front, and six feet 
on the rear slope of the roof, when the rear wall is eight 
feet in height. Another good form for a commercial 
rose house is the one described in Chapter III., with the 
sides of the roof fifteen and seven and one-half feet, and 
the height of the front and back walls five and seven 
feet respectively. In a house of this shape there should 
be a line of glass under the plate of the south wall (Fig. 
77). While the even-span house is not as well adapted 
for rose forcing as the three-quarter span house, it is fre- 
quently used, and will give very fair results. These 
houses may be eighteen to twenty feet wide, with four 
benches, about three and one-half feet each, in width. 

The best results seem to be obtained from benches 
not over four inches in depth, although this varies with 
the character of the soil, as three and one-half inches of 
heavy soil will be equal to four and one-half inches of 
soil of a sandy nature. In selecting the material for the 
bottoms of rose benches, a first choice would be for tile, 
second slate, and third wood. In planning our rose 
houses everything has been arranged upon the presump- 
tion that shallow beds were to be used, as this seems to 
be the favorite method of growing them. 

When there is no glass beneath the plate on the 
south wall, the custom in the past has been to have a 
single line of ventilators at the ridge, but many of the 
more recently constructed houses haA^e a line of sash on 
each side of the ridge ; if these are properly used, the 
draft of air upon the i)lants is greatly decj*eased. The 



liOSE HOUSES. 



147 




148 



GKEENHOUSE CONSTllUCTIO:^". 



use of ventilating sasli in the sontli wall is also quite 
common. 

During the last five years many large and well 
arranged commercial rose houses have been erected, and 
we are glad to be able to show illustrations of two plants 
that contain many of the latest ideas. In Fig. 77 will 
be seen a perspective view of the rose houses erected for 
W. P. Wight of Madison, N J., by Thos. AV. AVeath- 




FIG. 80. SECTION OF IROX ROSE HOUSE. 

ered's Sons of New York City. From this we can get an 
idea of the general appearance of the better class of 
commercial rose houses. They are each about three 
hundred feet long by twenty feet wide. 

One of the best arranged and most tlioroughly con- 
structed commercial greenhouse plants in the country is 
shown in Fig. 78. It was built in 1890 at Scarborough, 
N. Y., for F. R. Pierson, by Lord & Burnham Co. As 
will be seen by the ground plan, Fig. 70, there are eight 
houses, each measuring one hundred and fifty by twenty 
feet. Tliey are placed in pairs, end to end, except for a 
narrow passage way which affords a ready means of 
communication with the different houses and with the 



ROSE HOUSES. 149 

l)ottiug slied. At the rear of tlie second line of houses 
Is a propagating house, nine feet wide and three Inindred 
feet long, or really two houses each one hundred and 
fifty feet. The construction is the same as is recom- 
mended in Chapter VII., the rafters and posts being of 
iron, with the lower ends of the latter set in cement in 
the ground. The purlins and ridge are also of iron and 
all woodwork of cypress. The benches have an iron 
frame and slate bottom. The heat is furnished from 
steam boilers located as shown in the ground plan. A 
cross section of one of these houses is shown in Fig. 80, 
from which one can obtain a good idea of the slope of 
the roof and of the interior arrangement, while Fig. 8i 
shows another method of construction. 

A house of this description can be erected for about 
$25.50 per running foot, including the steam-heating 
apparatus. With hemlock benches the cost would not 
be over 120.75, and were the glass left out under the 
south plate, leaving only one line of ventilating appar- 
atus at the ridge, the cost could be reduced to 120.00 per 
linear foot. This would give double strength, French 
"seconds" or' American "firsts" glass, and two coats of 
paint. Keckoning the steam-heating apparatus at 14.50 
per linear foot, the house complete as above, with cheap 
wooden benches and without heating apparatus, would 
cost something over $15.00 per foot. AVhen iron benches 
with wooden bottoms are used, the house with one row 
of ventilating apparatus and steam-heating apparatus, 
would cost not far from 122.00 jDcr foot. If one does not 
care to use the iron construction, cyj^ress lumber can be 
obtained for the erection of a rose, or, in fact, of any 
kind of a greenhouse, all gotten out in the most ap- 
proved sizes and shapes, ready to be fitted together. 

There are a half-dozen or more firms who make a 
specialty of cypress for greenhouse building, among the 
oldest of which is the Lockland Lumber Co., of Lock- 



150 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION;. 




HOSE HOUSES. 



151 



land, Ohio. By request they have prepared a ground 
plan, cross section and details of a rose house such as 
they furnish, and tbcy are here presented as suggestions 
to prospective builders. The cross section is shown in 
Fig. 82 and is so clear that any carpenter could put the 
house together. The details are shown in Chajxter VI. 
and afford us an idea of some of the best shapes for the 
different parts of a greenhouse, and the way to put them 
together. The patterns do not differ materially from 
those used by other dealers in greenhouse materials, and 




FIG. 82. SECTIOX OF ROSE HOUSE (WOOD). 

perhaps the best advice that could be given to a person 
intending to build a rose house would be, in case one 
could not afford to build a house with an iron frame- 
work, to write to the nearest dealer in cypress lumber for 
plans and estimates for the proposed structure. 

As a partial guide in the matter, the following esti- 
mate is offered as the probable cost of cypress lumber 
for the erection of a three-quarter span rose forcing 
house. This includes all lumber required above the 
walls for a house with one glass gable ; the lumber being 



15^ feilEENHOtJSlil COJSrSfRUCTlOK. 

dressed upon four f.iccs and worked to pro])er sliapc with 
dimensions as given, including door and one row of 
ventilators. 

ESTIMATE FOH CYl'KESS LUMBER Foil A THKEE-QUAKTEU Sl'AX 
FOKCING HOUSE, 100 FEET BV 20 FEET. 



Gable Plate, 


13/4" X 7" 


20' long 


@ 


$0,071/2 


$1.50 


Side Gutters, Bottoms and two sides, 200' 


® 


■11 Va 


23.00 


Ridge Pieces, 


71/2" X 1%" 


100' 


@ 


.08 


8.00 


Ridge Cap, 


IVs" X 3%" 


100' 


@ 


.021/2 


2.50 


Purlin, 


1%" X 3\(/' 


100' 


@ 


.031/2 


3.50 


End Rafters, 


134" X 3' -"^ "' 
2 of 10' 


1 40' 


@ 


.031 4 


l.GI 


Gable Sash Bars, 


For one gable, 


80' 


@ 


.01% 


1.40 


Roof Sash Bars, 


82 uf 7" 
82 of 10' : 


[ 1,S8G' 


@ 


.021/4 


.43 


Header, 


1%" X 21,4" 


100' 


@ 


.0214 


2.50 


Ventilators, 


3' wide 1%" 


100' 


@ 


.10 


IG.OO 


Door and Frame, 


Door 3' 


X 7' X 13:i 


/' 




4.75 



$107.10 

For the construction of the walls twenty-six posts 
seven feet long, and costing about twelve cents each for 
cedar, and twenty-one posts twelve feet long, which will 
cost about twenty-five cents each, or about ten dollars 
for posts, will be required. Eed cedar will cost two or 
three times as much, and locust, which will be found 
very durable, will vary in price but will generally cost 
less than red cedar. For sheathing the building 1,300 
feet of matched hemlock, costing from $10.00 to 115.00 
per thousand, will be required, and the outside siding 
Avill take 1,500 feet, which will cost about 120.00 per 
thousand. A small amount of finishing lumber, build- 
ing paper and nails will complete the exterior, with the 
exception of the painting and glazing. The interior will 
require tables and walks, gas-pipe posts and ventilating 
and heating apparatus, which, with hinges and other 
hardware for door and ventilators, will cover the neces- 
sary materials for the erection of a forcing house. 

The cost of the lumber will be about 1230.00; 
glass, 2,500 feet at 13.50 per box for double strength B, 
$175.00; ventilating apparatus, 130.00; nails and hard- 



ROSE HOUSES. 153 

ware, $6.00; paint and putty, $50.00; building paper, 
$5.00; gas-pipe posts, 112.50; making a total cost of 
materials for the house, exclusive of labor, of about 
1500.00 to $525.00. The heating apparatus, water sup- 
ply, etc., will be additional. The former will cost about 
$400.00 if hot water is used, and not far from $340.00 
for steam, including labor. If the house is erected by 
hired labor the cost will be from $250.00 to $300.00 for 
the carpenters and painters, according to the experience 
of the men and the wages paid. 

Briefly summarized then, the cost of a three-quarter 
span forcing house complete with heating apparatus 
will be: 

Lumber for waUs $60.00 

Lumber for roof and freight 115.00 

Lumber for benches 45.00 

Lumber for walks 10.00 

Glass, 50 boxes 10" x 20" 175.00 

Paint and put l y 50.00 

Ventilating apparatus 30.00 

Hardware 6.00 

Building paper 5.00 

Gas-pipe posts, l^i i'>ch and 1 inch 12.50 

Labor, carpenters .ii;i25.00 to 150.00 

Painters and glaziers 125.00 to 150.00 

Heater, smoke pipe, etc 200.00 

Pipe, valves, and fittings 100.00 to 150.00 

Labor 40.00 to 50.00 

Total $1,098.50 to $1,208.50 

Or, .^11.00 to $12.25 per linear foot. 

In the above estimate, the grading, drainage, water 
supply, and the cost of a potting shed, furnace cellar, 
etc., are not considered. Of course, the cost of the 
lumber and the expense for labor, etc., would vary in 
d liferent localities, so that no estimate can be made that 
will apply in all cases, but where lumber can be obtained 
at from $12.00 to $20.00 per thousand, according to the 
grade, and labor of carpenters and painters is not over 
$2.50 per day, the above will be sufficiently reliable to 
furnish a fair idea of the cost. The cost of an even- 



154 GREENHOUSE COXSTRUCTION. 

span house will l)e aboni the same, anrl, if the hack wall 
has to be built for a lean-to, it will cost fully as much as 
the others for the same width of house. In this esti- 
mate over 1300.00 is allowed for labor, and as many 
florists would do most of the work themselves, a consid- 
erable reduction could be made in this item. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

LETTUCE HOUSES. 

Although we still find many growers of lettuce using 
houses of lean-to or narrow even span construction, the 
wide houses are rapidly superseding them. Pei'haps 
the largest house ever erected for the purpose was con- 
structed by W. W. Rawson of Arlington, Mass., who 
has been engaged in the growing of lettuce and other 
garden produce for the Boston market for many years. 

This house is three hundred and seventy feet long 
and thirty-three feet wide. It is of the three-quarter 
span form, and measures fifteen feet high at the ridge, 
with a south wall three and one-half feet high, and the 
north one twelve feet in height. The glass is double 
strength, twenty by thirty inches. The crop from this 
one house is about two thousand dozen heads, which 
sometimes brings from 12,000.00 to $3,500.00. Three 
crops are grown in a year besides a crop of cucumbers. 
While this is the largest house of the kind, there are 
many smaller ones constructed upon the same general 
lines, and they seem to be uniformly successful. 

LEAN-TO LETTUCE HOUSES. 

The lettuce is a plant that succeeds well in a lean-to 
lettuce house, such as is used by many of the lettuce 



LEAN-TO LETTUCE HOUSES. 



155 



growers in the vicinity of Boston, of which a cross sec- 
tion is shown in Fig. 83. Like all lean-to houses these 
are easily warmed and are cheaply constructed, but they 
do not have a sufficient pitch to the roof to secure the 
most benefit from the sun. They are commonly given a 
pitch of about eighteen degrees, but even at this slope, 
a lean-to roof on a house thirty-three feet wide would 
require a north wall about fifteen feet high, while a 
three-quarter span liouse can have a i^itch of twenty-two 
degrees, and the north wall need not be over ten or 
twelve feet high. 

With houses up to a width of twenty-five feet, a 
proper slope can be secured without carrying the north 




FIG. 83. LEAN-TO LETTUCE HOUSE {Section). 



wall to an undue height, or raising the glass too high 
above the plants; unless upon a sidehill, this width 
cannot be very much exceeded with this style of house. 
The three-quarter span house can readily be made eight 
or ten feet wider than the lean-to, without carrying the 
roof to a greater height, while the north wall will be 
considerably lower than it would be in the lean-to. Hav- 
ing determined upon the width and style of roof for the 
house, the construction will be very simple, if the sug- 



156 GREENHOUSE C0NSTRUCTI02T. 

• 

gcstions given in Chapters Y. and VI. as to the best 
methods of erecting the walls and roof arc followed. 

Lettuce houses should have from eighteen to thirty 
inches of glass in the south wall, and, on many accounts, 
it is desirable that the alternate sash at least be arranged 
as ventilators. Particularly in the wide honses with flat 
roofs, the sash bars should be somewhat heavier than for 
small houses with steep slopes, and should be very care- 
fully supported. For lean-to houses twenty-five feet wide, 
there should be at least three rows of purlins and purlin 
posts. 

A house of this description will require a back wall 
at least ten feet high, if built on level ground. A post 
and double-boarded wall will be fully as satisfactory as 
one built of brick or masonry of any kind. For con- 
venience in handling the soil, and to assist in ventilation, 
it is well to have small windows, perhaps two and one- 
half feet square, once in ten feet, in this wall. When 
solid beds are used, the south wall should not be more 
than three and one-half feet high, although it may be 
somewhat higher if the lettuce is grown in raised beds. 

The side-hill houses (Fig. 8) will also be found quite 
desirable for lettuce forcing, as they are nothing more 
than a, number of lean-to houses placed .close together, 
and they will be found not only economical in construc- 
tion and heating, bat in land and in labor of handling 
the crops, although the three-quarter span houses are 
generally preferred to either of the above st3'les. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

PROPAGATING HOUSE. 

In connechoii with every greenhouse there should 
be a bench for the rooting of cuttings, aucl in large 
establishments one or more houses will be required for 
this purpose. The simplest method of erecting a prop- 
agating house, when one has a rose or other three-quarter 
span house, is shown in Fig. 61. The structure is known 
as a "north-side house," and, if it is not entirely needed 
for propagating purposes, can be utilized for ferns, vio- 
lets, and other plants that thrive without direct sunlight. 
In arranging some establishments, a narrow house, 
connecting the ends of the main houses, is often a con- 
venience. If upon the noi'th, or even on the east or 
west ends, as it generally is, this head house can be made 
seven feet wide, with a lean-to roof, and will serve an 
excellent purpose as a propagating house. When any of 
these locations cannot be utilized, a narrow even-span 
house can be used for this purpose, and will be well 
adapted for it. 

The construction of the house will not differ from 
that of a similar house for other purposes, but its in- 
terior arrangement should be somewhat different. As a 
table for a jaropagating house, an ordinary greenhouse 
bench Avill answer, but, in order to secure and control 
the necessary bottom heat, the front of the bench should 
be boarded up, with one board on hinges so that it can 
be used to regulate the temperature. For the propaga- 
tion of most plants this bench will answer as well as a 



158 GREENnOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 

more elaborate constrnctioii. The heating pipes should 
all be under the bench, and should give a radiating sur- 
face about twenty-five per cent, greater than would be 
required in a growing house for the same jilants as are 
to be propagated. 

WATER BENCH. 

The use of the old-fashioned wooden water bench 
has been abandoned, although the galvanized iron water 
bench is quite common. If this is used the trough 
should be about four inches deep, and of the width and 
length of the proposed cutting bench. It should be well 
supported, so that there will be no danger of its settling 
at any point. The bottom of the cutting bench, upon 
which the sand is to be placed, should be just above the 
tank. The tank should be connected at each end by 
means of one and one-fourth inch pipes with a hot water 
heating apparatus. When the heating pi})es in the sys- 
tem are all below the level of the tank, no cover will be 
required, but, if at any point the piping is overhead, a 
closed tank will be necessary, or an independent heater 
can be used for the propagating house, in which case 
the water tank will answer as the expansion tank for the 
system. When tanks are used, the heating pipes should 
be sufficient to maintain a temperature of forty-five to 
fifty degrees without the tank. 

PROPAGATING CASE. 

While cuttings of most plants require thorough ven- 
tilation, many stove species can only be struck with 
success in a close, moist atmosphere. When only a few 
are to be rooted, the required conditions can be secured 
by the use of a bell glass, or liand glass, but, if many 
are to be struck, a pro|)agating case will be a necessity. 
This can readily be constructed upon the bench, prefer- 
ably at the warmer end. The ends and front can be 



HOTBEDS. 159 



made of sash bars and glass. A portion of the front, 
however, should be of glass sash, arranged to slide by one 
another and give ready access to all parts of the case. 



CHAPTEK XXVI. 

HOTBEDS. 

Among the movable plant structures, we have what 
are known as hotbeds and cold frames. They differ 
only in the degree of heat they receive, the cold frame 
being without artificial heat, while the hotbed is heated 
by fermenting vegetable substances, generally stable ma- 
nure, leaves, and other refuse. The hotbed, in some of 
its forms, is a very de- 
sirable, and, in fact, iJ _^^ //A 

almost a necessary ad- < ^^^ A /^^^ 

junct to the green- ^~^^^^ '::^^v'^ y 

house, for all florists , ^^'^ /k ^^Ky^ 

and market gardeners, ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^'yj^ 
On the other hand, "^—^ ^^^^s^^^^^^^^;^ 
while a large business 

can be carried on with ^^^- ^4. hotbed fkame. 
hotbeds alone, the possession of a greenhouse, small and 
cheaply constructed though it be, will be a great con- 
venience, particularly to the market gardener, for the 
starting of young plants during the severe weather of 
midwinter. 

The simplest kind of a hotbed, ajid the one gener- 
ally used, is about six feet wide, and of any desired 
length, with the sash sloping toward the south. While 
hotbeds are often made of one-inch boards, or are 
cheaply constructed of waste pieces of lumber, they will 
be more satisfactory if constructed of lumber that is one 



IGO 



GKEENHOUSE CONSTRUCTIOX. 



and one-half or two mclies thick, carefully framed 
together and painted. A very satisfactory hotbed can 
be made from three pieces of two-inch hemlock lumber 
one foot wide and twelve feet long. In order to give 
the sash a proper pitch to the south, one side of the bed 
should be made six inches wider than the other. When 
planks with a width of twelve inches are used this can 
be readily secured, by sawing a strip three inclies wide 
from the edge of one, and nailing it to the edge of 
another, Fig. 84. In this way we secure a jilank nine 
inches wide (B) for the south side of the bed, while that 
for the north side (^1) will have a width of fifteen inches. 
The ends should be cut six feet long, and the proper 
slope can be given them by sawing off a triangular strip 
from one end, and nailing it upon the other end of the 
piece, as at C, in Fig. 84. 

PORTABLE PRAMES. 

A portable hotbed frame is often used, and as it can 
be taken apart and stored out of the sun and rain for 




FKi. ?5. pra:me axd sasii. 

six months of the year, it will last for many seasons. 
By fastening irons of ]iropcr shape to the ends of 
each of the side boards, and boring holes to correspond 
in the end pieces, the frame can be held together by 
Washers and ])ins, as shown at E, Fig. 84. Cross bear- 
ers, D, four inches wide and one inch thick, dovetailed 
into the edges of the front and back boards, will kee]i 
the bed from spreading, and will serve as slides for the 



MATS AKD SHUTTEES. 161 

sash. If a strip of one-inch board is fastened to the 
middle of the upper side of each cross bearer it will serve 
to strengthen it, and to hold the sash in place. Another 
method of ventilating the bed is illustrated in Fig. 85. 
For the purpose of retaining the heat in cold weather, 
straw mats and wooden shutters are desirable. 

MATS AKD SHUTTEES. 

For the mats, a supply of long rye straw, tarred 
rope, and strong linen twine are necessary. There are 
various ways of making the mats, one of the simplest 
being upon a frame of two by four inch lumber of the 
same size as the mats. With long straw, a mat six and 
one-half feet square can be made, but the usual size is 




FIG. 8G. HOTBED SHUTTEE. 

about four, or five, by seven feet. The tarred rope is 
stretched lengthwise of the frame, so as to bring the 
strands one foot apart and six inches from each side, and 
fastened to stout pegs. For a mat six and one-half feet 
square, the straw should be, at least, four feet long. 
Bundles of straw as large as can be enclosed by the 
thumb and middle finger, are placed on the frame, with 
the butts even with the sides, and are tied in place with 
stout hemp twine. The bundles thus lap in the centei 
about tw^o feet, and the ends will keep the center even 
with the sides. With straw still longer than this, a mat 
aljout five feet wide can be made without any laps of the 
straw, by placing the butts alternately to the right and 

n ^ 



162 



GREENHOUSE CONSTJiUC'TION. 



left, one loiif^ili of straw reachiug across the mat. If 
the mats arc kept covered with the shutters, and are 
stored where the mice cannot destroy them, they can be 
used for many years. 

The shutters. Fig. 86, for covering the mats shonkl 
be six and one-half feet long, and three feet to three feet 
and six inches wide. Made of lialf-iuch matched lum- 
ber, with cleats at the ends and across the middle, and 
with handles, they form a nseful addition to one's 
equipment, 

HOTBED YARD. ' 

Unless they can be placed where they will be shel- 
tered by buildings, a tight board fence upon the north, 



3 




1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 M 1 


lilll II M M M M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 lll>l 


mil 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Hill 


mil 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 mil 


mil 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II mil 






/\ 








lllll 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 mil 




mil 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II ii'ii 




mil 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ii;ii 




mil 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 mil 











FIG. 87. HOTBED YARD. 

east and west sides will be desirable. The land should, 
if possible, slope slightly to the south, and the rows of 
frames should be regularly arranged. In Fig. 87 will be 
seen a convenient arrangement for a fi-ame yard. There 
is an opportunity for a team to pass entirely around the 
frames, and (lii-ougii (lie center in citlier direction. 
There should be a hydrant for furnisliing water at the 



MAKING THE BED. 163 

center of the plat, A, or at some other convenient point. 
1, 2 and 3 are sheds for the storage of sash, shutters, etc. 
If one has but a few frames it will be desirable to have 
tlieni seven feet apart, which will give space for the sash 
to be drawn off, and will allow a cart to dump its load 
of manure or soil between the frames. When a large 
number of frames are used, and especially if the land is 
valuable, it will be better to have the rows from two to 
three feet apart. The shutters and sash can then be 
placed in j^iles at the end of the rows. If only a small 
amount of ventilation is needed, the sash can be slipped 
up or down, or can bo raised, as seen in Fig. 85. 

MAKIifG THE BED. 

For a winter hotbed, the heating material should 
have a depth of from two to two and a half feet, while 
in the spring onc-hidf that depth will answer. An exca- 
vation two feet wider than the frame, and of the required 
depth, should be made, in order to prevent the frost 
from working into the bed, although for spring use the 
same result may be eiiected by piling fresh manure about 
tlie frame. The heating material is generally fresh 
horse manure. Unless it contains a liberal amount of 
straw, or similar bedding material, something of the 
kind should be added, so that it will not be more than 
one-half of clear manure. Oak leaves, also, make a 
good material to mix with the manure, as they will hin- 
der, and, consequently, prolong the decomposition of 
the mass, thus giving an even heat. 

About two weeks before the bed is wanted, the 
material should be jilaced in a jiile about eiglit feet wide 
and four feet high, with a flat top and vertical sides. 
The pile should preferably be made in a shed or manure 
cellar, but may be in the open air, or even in the frame 
itself. In three or four days it will be fermenting rap- 
idly, and should then be forked over, throwing the out- 



1G4 



GREENHOUSE COISSTRUCTIOX. 



side portion to tlie center ; at the end of two or three 
days the pile should be well warmed np, and the bed. 
may be made, or, if it has not warmed evenly, it should 
be again turned over, before being placed in the ftame. 
In working over the pile, all coarse lumps should be 
broken up, and the heap should be left as light as j^ossi- 
ble, to encourage fermentation. If, when the material 
is placed in the frame, it is quite warm, it may be lev- 
eled off and firmly tramped down, filling it up to within 
six or eight inches of the glass. Should it not be as 
warm as is desirable, it may be best to delay the final 
tramping for a couple of days. 

The bed is now ready for tlie soil, which should be 
a ricli com^iost. For many crops the soil and manure 




FIG. 88. COLD PIT. 

from an old l)ed will answer. The best materials would 
be equal parts of pasture sods, decomposed manure, gar- 
den soil, and sand enough to make a light mass and pre- 
vent baking, spread over the manure to the depth of six 
inches. For two or throe days there will be a violent 
heat in the bed, but this will soon go down and the bed 
will be ready for seeds or ])lants. If, while preparing 



r)ETACHED COLD FRAMES AND PITS. 165 

the manure for the bed, it is found to be dry, it should 
be moistened with tepid water from a watering can. 

In caring for hotbeds, the mats and shutters should 
be taken ofp on pleasant days, as soon as che sun is well 
up, and on bright days the beds should be given air 
about the same as in a forcing house. The beds should 
be closed, at least, two hours before sunset, and the cov- 
ers should be put on as the sun goes down. ' 

While hotbeds are a great convenience after the first 
of March, they are each year becoming less used for the 
growing of winter crops. The cost of forcing houses is 
but little more, and they are much more convenient and 
in every way more satisfactory. 

DETACHED COLD FEAMES AND PITS. 

The most common form of cold frame (a hotbed 
frame and sash without any heating material) is a low 
structure used to carry through the winter jjansies, vio- 
lets and other half hardy plants, or for the growing of 
vegetables and bedding plants, before the danger of frost 
in the open ground is over in the spring. For many 
purposes, however, a deep frame or pit is desirable. In 
Fig. 88 is a cross section of such a structure. If made 
eight feet wide inside, five or six feet deep at the plate, 
and of any length, it will be found one of the most use- 
ful "rooms" in a greenhouse establishment. The walls 
may be of wood, brick, stone or concrete, and the top 
should consist of plates, firmly anchored to the walls, a 
ridge, rafters and hotbed sash. For a pit eiglit feet 
wide inside, the sash on one side should be about six by 
three feet, and on the other four by three feet, or if ten 
feet wide, an even span roof can be made, with sash six 
by three feet on both sides. With mats and shutters, 
frost can be kept out from a deep pit of this kind. As 
in Fig. 88, a double use can be made of such a frame. 
By placing a plank floor about one foot below the plate. 



166 GREENHOUSE CONSTEUCTION. 

the upper portion can bo used for violets and similar 
plants, while bulbs for winter forcing can be plunged in 
sand upon the bottom. It can also be used for winter- 
ing a great variety of plants. In Fig. 10 can be seen a 
very convenient frame against a greenhouse wall. By 
means of slides in the wall, a sufficient supply of heat 
Dan be admitted from the greenhouse if desired. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

CONSERVATORIES. 

As usually applied, this term refers to small green- 
houses attached to dwellings, in which, although jdants 
may be grown-, the real object is to have plants shown 
that are attractive, either in foliage or flower. In a 
strict sense, however, a conservatory is a structure in 
which plants that have been developed in narrow and 
comjjaratively low greenhouses, known as growing houses, 
are shown during their period of iiower. They may be 
attached to the dwelling or other building. Fig. 89, but 
are generally detached buildings surrounded by the vari- 
ous growing houses. In another chapter descriptions 
will be found of various small structures adapted to the 
wants of amateurs, but at present we shall consider vari- 
ous combinations of glass structures, consisting of con- 
servatories or show houses, with the necessary subsidiary 
growing houses, such as would require the care of a i)ro- 
fessional gardener. 

In addition to the large number of public institu- 
tions where large conservatories are desirable, the num- 
ber of private individuals who have the means to erect 
and maintain establishments of this kind, and taste to 
appreciate the beauties of the flowers and plants grown 



CONSERVATORIES. 



167 



?^ 
~. H 

a. > 

? C2 
^ CO 

■ ?3 
<l 

H 
O 




16B GREEISTHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 

in tliem, is constaiiily increasing. The use of i)lants for 
purposes of lawn and liouse dccoraHon, and of flowers 
for embellishing the table, the parlor, or the person, has 
become so common that where one can afford it, the pos- 
session of a greenhouse has become very desirable, and 
almost a necessity in some eases. 

Conservatories, in pro2)ortiou to their length, are 
much wider and higher than the growing houses, and, 
in fact, there is practically no limit to their size, excej)t 
the money to erect and maintain them. They are usu- 
ally erected upon a brick or stone foundation about two 
and one-half feet high, and with vertical glass sides 
above this to the height of from six to ten feet above the 
masonry. The width of the house may vary from twenty 
or twenty -five feet, to eighty or one hundred and even 
more, and the length may be as desired. For narrow 
houses, up to a width of thirty feet, the even span roof 
Avith straight rafters, continuous from ridge to plate, 
will be the least expensive ; it will grow the best plants, 
and, if made in jiroportion, will not be displeasing. 

For a house of this kind the slojoe of the roof should 
be about thirty-five degrees. Twenty years ago it was 
the custom to surmount conservatories of this kind with 
a lantern toj) about six feet wide, Fig. 90, two feet high 
at the plate, and three at the ridge, running the length 
of the house. These had ventilators in the side walls, 
which were desirable in summer, but during the winter 
they added greatly to the consumption of fuel. The 
lanterns were so narrow that they were of little use, 
except to add, in a slight degree, to the appearance of 
the house. They are now no longer used except upon 
very wide conservatories, where they arc so constructed, 
as shown in Fig. 91, that they add from five to ten feet 
to the height of the house, and are of such a widtli that 
this space can be utilized by tall plants. The straight 
sash bars can also be used in wide houses, but they will 



cokservatories. 



160 



o 



o 

&^ 

5 n 

00 

H 
O 




170 



GREENHOUSE CONSTKUCTIOK". 



have ii barn-like ai)i)caranee, unless the roof is l)roken by 
gables and secondary slopes. This method of building 
greenhouses has many things in its favor, that are wor- 
thy of commendation. It is in the wide conservatories 
that the curvilinear roofs are jDarticularly desirable. In 
themselves they are quite ornamental, and they moreover 




Fio. 91. coxservato::y {Section). 

form a convenient method of arching over any wide 
space, as shown in the cross section. Fig. 91, and in 
perspective in Fig. 105. 

IRON HOUSES. 

For any structure of this kind, wood is too perish- 
able, and the necessary strength could only be secured 
by the use of a heavy framework. Of all materials at 
present available, architectural iron seems best adai)ted 
for this work, and all sills, posts, rafters, braces, ridges, 
purlins and supports should be of this material. There 
seems to be but little choice between cypress and metal 
sash bars for large conservatories, aside from tlie larger 



IRON" HOUSES, 



171 




172 GEEEKHOUSR CONSTRUCTION. 

expense fcluit must be ineurred for the latter. If tlie 
latter are used, it is desirable lliat they should have a 
steel eore, as, if eonstrncLcd of copper, zinc, or galvan- 
ized iron, they are likely to bend and crack the glass. 

The first cost of the iron roof is considerably more 
than for cypress, and, in order to be lasting and fi-ee 
from rust, it will need to be painted fully as often. A 
metallic glazed house is harder to heat than a putty 
glazed one, and after a year or two is likely to leak heat 
from, and rain into the house. With the same attention 
to painting and repairing a wooden roof as is necessary 
with an iron one, the house will be tighter, easier to 
heat, there will be less drip, and it will be in a good 
state of preservation at the end of twenty- five or thirty 
years. Although practically indestructible, the glazing 
strips used in the iron houses will have become so bent 
and out of shape that many of them will require renewal 
even before this time. 

INTERIOR ARRANGEMENT OF THE CONSERVATORY. 

In arranging the interior of the conservatory, it will 
be well to use all of the center of the building for large 
palms, bananas, bamboos, tree ferns, and other tall- 
growing plants. Fig. 92. They should be planted in 
the ground, and so arranged as to present as natural an 
a]3pearance as possible. The walks should be of gener- 
ous widths, and so arranged as to bring into view all 
parts of the house. The portion of the house next to 
the walls may be arranged in the same manner as the 
center, but it is desirable to have a portion of it, at least, 
supplied with tables, ui)on which plants in flower may 
be displayed. If they are combined with ferns and 
ornamental-leaved plants the effect will be very pleasing. 
This is really the jmrpose of a conservatory, since, as is 
usually the case, if it is kept at a temperature of fifty- 
five to sixty degrees when plants are brought in from 



INTERIOR ARRANGEMENT OF CONSERVATORY. 173 




174 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 



the stove and otlier warm rooms, the flowers will be con- 
served, and will last must longer than if kept at a high 
temperature. Frequently the large rooms are used for 
growing collections of the more ornamental 2)alms, and 
are known as palm houses, Fig. 93. 

THE STOVE HOUSE. 

As first used, the term ''stove" was ajiplied to 
greenhouses in which artificial heat was suj^plied by 
means of stoves. As is frequently the case, the name of 
the object became attached to the building in which it 
was used, and a stove house to-day is merely a hothouse 
with a temperature of sixty-five to seventy-five degrees. 
As a rule, these are considerably nai-rower and lower 
than the conservatoi'ies or palm houses. They are scl- 




FiG. 94. STOVE ROOM {Secfion). 

dom wider than twenty or twenty-five feet, and from 
twelve to twenty feet in height. If built upon a ma- 
sonry foundation two and a half feet high, the vertical 
side walls are usually about two and one-half or three 
feet high, with side ventilators. The roof lias an angle 
of thirty to tliirty-five degrees, with ventihifors on each 
side of the ridge. 

Tills house should have sido t;i!.K '■, and ;: wide cen- 
ter table may be used, or, if the plants are large, they 



STOVi: AXD ORCHID HOUSES. 



175 




176 GKEENHOUSE COXSTRUCTIOX, 

may bo planted or 2)lunged. In Fig. 94 is seen a cross 
section of a stove house with a curvilinear roof, while in 
Fig. 95 an interior view of the same house is seen. 

When one docs not desire the curvilinear roof for 
itself, a stove room built with straight sash bars will 
give fully as good results. A very pleasing effect may 
bo produced when stove plants and orchids are grown in 
the same room. So far as the construction of the house 
itself is concerned, a stove house does not differ from 
others of thfe same general style, except that to obtain 
the i^roper temjierature, the radiating surface, provided 
in the steam or water pipes, must be considerably larger 
than for most houses. 

COOL HOUSES. 

In all establishments of this kind there should be, 
at least, one house in which a maximum night tempera- 
ture of fifty degrees is maintained, for such plants as 
do not require the stove room heat. In a general way, 
their construction would be the same as for a stove 
house, although, as a rule, a narrower house will answer. 
"Where many bedding }/lants are used for lawn decoration 
in the summer, a similar house will be required for that 
purpose. If desired, a portion of this room could be 
used for propagating purposes, or a narrow hoiise could 
be erected especially for propagation. 

"When large palms, and other similar plants, are 
used upon the lawns during the summer, they should be 
stored in a cool house, and if no other jilace is at hand, 
a lean-to against a shed or other building can be cheaply 
erected, and a proper temperature can be maintained at 
very little expense. For many of (lie broad-leaved ever- 
giTons, that should be l<e])t in a dormant condition dur- 
ing the Avini(>r, a north side loan-to liouse is quite 
desirable. 



ORCHID HOUSES. 



177 



ORCHID HOUSES. 

As indicated above, orchids can be grown in stove 
houses with other plants, and for many amateurs no 
special orchid house ueed be provided, but when the col- 
lections are large, it will be wc^" to have houses set apart 
for their use. It is generp^\ ac'niitted that no form of 
construction is better adapted ior orchid culture than 
the span roof house. Many gi ■)^ ers have made the mis- 
take of erecting high and wide nouses, while, had they 
confined themselves to structure:- not over sixteen or 
eighteen feet wide, and ten or eleven feet high, they 




FIG. 96. ORCHID HorsE {Sectio7i). 

would have obtained more satisfactory results, to say 
nothing of the loss in cost of construction and fuel. 

The orchids are divided into three groups, — stove, 
intermediate and cool house, — from the temperature in 
which they thrive best, and houses should be provided 
accordingly. If an orchid house sixty to seventy-five 
feet long is erected, it can be divided by cross partitions 
into three rooms, which can be adapted for the differ- 
ent classes of orchids by a proper adjustment of the 
heating pipes. 

For small plants, a house only twelve feet wide and 
eight feet high at the ridge will be even easier to erect 
and heat, but the moisture and temperature cannot be 
1-i 



1>7^' GREEKHOUSE CONSTEUCTION. 

controlled as well as in a wider house. For some of the 
Cftpl house orchids, a lean-to house answers quite well, 
an,d where Cattleyas are grown in large quantities for 
market, the three-quarter span house will give good 
satisfaction. 

-,., , In Fig. 96 will be found a section of an orchid 
lp,Ouse, showing the arrangement of the tables and venti- 
lators. At least two feet of the side walls should be 
above the masonry, giving sixteen or eighteen inches of 
glass. There should be two lines of ventilators at the 
ridge, and some means of bottom ventilation should also 
be provided. In the intermediate and Mexican houses 
the vertical sash in the side walls may be used as venti- 
lators, but in the stove or East Indian house all drafts 
of cold air arc injurious, and it is preferable to admit 
the. fresh air under the tables. 

All orchids require very careful shading during the 
summer. A thin permanent shading may be given in 
the spring, but the main reliance should be upon blinds 
or curtains of canvas or netting, that can be drawn up 
except while the sun is shining bright. In dull weather 
a thick permanent shading would be injurious to the 
plants. 

GRAPERIES. 

The large, choice varieties of European grapes are 
not hardy in our latitude, and some protection must be 
provided for them if we are to grow them. Many varie- 
ties can be grown in. a glass house even without heat, 
and to such a building the name of ' ' cold grapery " has 
been given. Some varieties require heat to bring them 
to maturity, while others can be brought in quite early 
if started in winter with artificial heat, and for such 
purposes tlie "hot grapery" is used, although the name 
"forcing grapery" is also applied to it. 

While almost any greenhouse will answer for grow- 
ing grapes, experience has shown that certain forms are 



GRAPERIES. 



179 



better than others. For the forciug grapery nothing 
seems to be better than the nai'row lean-to or two-third 
span, such as is seen in cross section iti Fig. 97, as it 
furnishes a warm back wall against which the vines can 
be trained, and, like all lean-to houses, it is cheaply con- 
structed and heated. The three-quarter span houses are 
also excellent for either forcing or cold graperies, but 
unless one has walls that can be used for this purpose it 
will be preferable to build span roof houses running 




FIG. 97. FORCiXG GKAPEKY {Section). 

north and south, except when grapes are to be forced in 
the winter. The span roof house, Fig. 98, encloses a 
larger body of air than either of the other houses, and it 
will be easier to regulate the temperature and the moist- 
ure in such a house than in a narrow one. In addition 
to the above reason the wide houses are preferable, as 
they have longer rafters and afford more space for train- 
ing the vines. 

The curvilinear roof is frequently used for vineries, 
and in Fig. 99 is shown a section of a curvilinear house. 
They give somewhat longer rafters for training the vines, 
but they have no otlier advantage, except, perhaps, in 



180 



GKEEXHOUSE CONSTEUCTION. 



appearance, aud Ibis will not counterbalance the in- 
creased cost. 

The even span greenhouses, with straight sash bars, 
seem to be the favorite form for graperies. In their 
general construction they do not diiicr from even span 
structures of similar dimensions used for other purposes, 
and for the details of construction reference is made to 
Chapters V and V^I. There are, however, certain points 
that should be considered in erecting a grapery. If the 




FJG. 98. EVEN" SPAN GRAPERY {Section). 

house is a wide one, the sloi)e of the roof may be less 
than if it is comparatively narrow, and thirty-five, or 
even thirty degrees })itch will be sufficient in one case, 
while forty, or perliaps forty-five degrees, may l)e desir- 
able in another. 

In choosing a site for a grapery, it is well to have it 
somewhat sheltered from the north and' east, and, by all 
means, it should be well drained to the depth of three 
feet, that the border may not become wet. The situa- 
tion should 1)0 such that it will not be affected either by 
the shade, or the roots of large trees, which might get 
into the l)order and steal from the vines. 



GRAPERIES. 181 

The wall of brick or stone, if either be used, should 
extend for a foot or so above the level, and if a portion 
of the border is to be on each side of the wall, arches 
should be left in the wall at intervals of about three feet, 
with openings at least one foot square through which 
the roots can make their way. Upon this wall there 
should be one of wood two feet high, with continuous 
side ventilation (see Fig. 98). If it is desired to make the 
first cost as low as possible, the side walls may be built 
of wood, without the use of a stone foundation, but in 
the damp border it will not be very durable, and the 
form of wall described above is preferable. The roof 




FIG. 99. CURVILINEAR GRAPERY (Section). 

should be somewhat stiffer than for an ordinary green- 
house, but it need not be different in construction from 
those described in Chapter VI. There should be, at 
least, one line of ventilation at the ridge, and preferably 
two in a wide house. 

AVhile steam could be used for heating vineries, it 
has not to any extent, hot water being relied on for the 
most part. The flue is not satisfactory and is but little 
used. In arranging the pipes, it is best to have them 
three or four feet from the vines, as, if in close proxim- 
ity, they might unduly dry out the border, and would 
tend to invite the development of the red spider. The 



182 GREjCNHOUSE COKSTEUCTIOK. 

radiation slionld be ample, and so snpjilied with valves 
tluit tlic amount of heat furnished can be regulated at 
pleasure. 

Some arrangement should be made for training the 
vines, and perhaps the simplest form of trellis will be 
made of No. 13 galvanized wires, arranged one foot 
apart, and suspended about fifteen inches below the 
sash bars (Figs. 97 and 98). 

ORCHAED HOUSES. 

In many sections of the country some of our 
choicest fruits, such as peaches, nectarines, apricots, 
sweet cherries, etc., cannot be grown in the open air, 
and if their cultivation is attempted it must be under 
glass. In Europe fruit houses are very common, and 
for many years have formed an im23ortant part of the 
greenhouses, not only upon the large estates, but in con- 
nection with the cottages of the middle classes. On this 
side of the Atlantic, the ease with which these crops can 
be grown in favorable localities, and the abundance and 
cheapness of the sub-tropical fruits from Florida and 
California, have united to restrict the use of orchard 
houses. While it is doubtful if they can be made j3i"ofit- 
able as commercial ventures, except under unusually 
favorable conditions, many persons find them very desir- 
able to furnish a supply of fresh fruit out of season for 
their own tables. 

In their construction, orchani houses do not greatly 
diifer from graperies. The walls are built in the same 
manner, but should have a height of six feet, at least 
one-half of which should be of glass. They may be 
constructed of wood or iron posts and boards up to a 
height of two feet, or they may have a masonry founda- 
tion with a brick wall above. The glass in the side walls 
should be from three to four feet high, and at least one- 
half of it should be in the form of ventilators, liinged at 



ORCHARD HOUSES. 183 

the top. The roof may be either of movable sash or 
of fixed sash bars, the latter being preferable if the house 
is to be a permaiient one. In this case iron posts, raf- 
ters, purlins and ridge, with cypress sash 1>^ys, can be 
used to advantage. With the high walls, to give room 
for the trees at the sides of the houses, it ;wiU be desir- 
able, particularly if the house is a wide o.ne,, to,, give the 
roof a comparatively low pitch, in order to bring the 
glass down as near as possible to the plan;^s in the center 
of the house. A slope of twenty-six degrees,,will,9.pawe]i'> 
and if the liouse is more than twenty-five feet wide, 
twenty degrees will be preferable, Ample means of 
ventilating the houses should be pro\ided. In addition 
to the row under the plate, there should be one,; in nar- 
row houses, and two in wide ones, at the ridge, and doors 
or ventilators in the ends are also desij^-able. 

While any form of hous,e, , ,leai;i-to, even spari, oi* 
three-quarter span, curvilinear or straight, may b,e ,use4, 
the wide even span will be most satisfactory, as the light 
will be more evenly distributed than in either of the 
other forms, and the temperature and moisture will be 
easier to regulate than in a lean-to or in a narrow house. 
While houses not over twelve or fifteen feet wide will give 
fair results, a width of eighteen, twenty, or, better yet, 
twenty-five feet will be preferable. The lean-to will be 
a cheap form to erect, when it can be built against the 
south wall of a building, hui when this cannot be done, 
an even sjDan house will cost no more, and will be much 
more satisfactory. With a leau-to construction, a house 
about fifteen feet wide can b'e built when the south wall 
is five or six feet high and tlie north one fourteen or fif- 
teen feet. While not really desirable, a narrow lean-to 
house six to ten feet wide can \)e used. The construc- 
tion would be about the same as that of a narrow lean-to 
grapery. In this kind of a house the trees are generally 
trained upon the north wall. With proper care in reg- 



184 GREENHOUSE COKSTRUCTION. 

ulating ilio lioat and moisture, and in ventilating, fair 
results will be obtained. If to be used as fruit-forcing 
houses, tlie three-quarter span house, with the long slope ^ 
either to the north or to the south, can also be used. 

While some growers plant the trees in the border, 
others grow them in pots or boxes, and are then able to 
pack the trees away, and nse the house for other pur- 
poses until it is necessary to start the trees in the winter 
or spring. In narrow houses there is only one walk, 
the trees being arranged upon either side, but in wide 
span roof houses, although this arrangement is often 
made, it is preferable to have two walks, one on either 
side, about four feet from the walls, thus securing the 
peak of the roof as an additional space for tall trees. 
When there is a walk in the center of houses over fifteen 
feet wide, it is necessary to have a narrow walk upon 
either side, for convenience in watering and caring for 
the plants. 

FIRE HEAT. 

Even when only used as growing houses, it is desir- 
able to have the houses provided with heating apparatus. 
While dormant it frequently happens that the tempera- 
ture may drop so low that the buds will be injured, 
since, as a rule, the buds are not as well ripened as when 
grown in the open air, and will be more susceptible to 
cold. It is after the buds start, however, that the dan- 
ger of injury by cold is greatest, as, if the temj^erature 
falls below the freezing point while the trees are in 
bloom, the crop Avill be lost and the trees greatly injured. 

Although steam or hot air flues may be used for 
heating, hot water will be found more satisfactory. The 
piping should be sufficient to keep the temperature of 
the house at forty-five degrees in the coldest weather 
that is likely to occur after the trees are started. If 
peaches or other fruits are to be forced, they should bo 



ARRANGEMENT OF GREENHOUSES. 185 

started as soon as March 1, and the forcing may com- 
mence as early as January. In the forcing house a tem- 
perature as high as fifty or fifty-five degrees at niglit is 
necessary for the best results, and in estimating the radi- 
ation this should be kept in mind. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

THE ARRANGEMENT OF GREENHOUSES. 

"When a large number of houses that are used for 
different purposes are to be combined, considerable skill 
is necessary in order to secure the best results. The 
arrangement depends largely upon the kind of houses, 
as well as their size and shape, and as there are, at least, 
ten or a dozen houses that go to make up a comjDlete 
plant, in the very selection of the houses for the estab- 
lishment there would be opportunity for hundreds, and 
even thousands, of combinations. We have outlined 
above the structural peculiarities of seven or eight of the 
more important houses, and have elsewhere described 
the rose house, propagating house, forcing house, etc., 
and now offer for consideration perspective views and 
ground plans of greenhouse establishments, designed by 
the leading horticultural architects and builders of the 
country. 

The first illustration, Fig. 100, shows a part of the 
greenhouses at the Michigan Agricultural College, and 
in Fig. 101 a ground plan of the houses is shown. This 
range of houses is not an elaborate one, but it is well 
arranged, and in connection with a grapery and two 
forcing houses makes a fairly complete establishment. 
It contains a palm house, or conservatory, fifty-eight by 
twenty-five feet, a stove room twenty-five feet square. 



18(; 



GREEN"HOUSE CONSTRUCTION". 




ARRANGEMENT OF GREEKHOUSES. 



187 



a cool liouse of the same size, a rose room eigliteen by 
bwenty-five feet, two propagating (hot and cold) housea 
for the growing of bedding plants, each twelve by fifty 
feet, and another room twenty-five by twenty-four feet, 
that is used as occasion demands. The workroom is 
twenty-five by fifteen feet, and is over the heaters. The 
gardener's house, as shown in the illustration, is joined 
to the conservatory. 

The houses shown in perspective were erected in 
1892, by Lord & Burnham Co., and are of their iron 




FIG. 101. GROU^STD PLAN" OF MICBIGAN AGRICULTURAL 
COLLEGE GREENHOUSES. 

frame construction, with all outside work of cypress. 
The walks are of cement, the tables of angle iron with 
gas pipe legs, and with slate tops in some rooms and tile 
in others. The houses are heated by a No, 8 Furman 
hot water heater, put in by the Herendeen Manufactur- 
ing Co., of Geneva, N. Y. The method of constructing 
the walls, roof, benches, and the heating coils is shown 



18S 



GKEEKHOUSE COXSTEUCTIOA'. 




AERAI5"GEME]SrT OF GREENHOUSES. 189 

in Figs. 14, 17 and 26, except that the coils here used 
are double. Each room is piped independently, and 
each coil is so arranged that heat can be shut off in 
whole or in part from one room without affecting • the 
others. In the rear of the new greenhouses, as shown 
in the ground plan, arc three other houses, that were 
erected some fifteen years ago. They are entirely con- 
Btructed of wood, and although kept well painted, are 
showing signs of decay in some places. They are heated 
by a Spence hot water heater, and the radiating surface 
is supplied by two-inch flow pipes and one and one-half 
inch returns. 

Similar in construction, in many respects, to the 
new greenhouses described above, are those shown in 
Fig. 102. The principal difference is in the form of the 
roof of the conservatory, which is curvilinear, and in 
the arrangement of the growing houses. This range 
was erected by Thos. AY. Weathered's Sons, at New 
Dorp, Staten Island. 

A larger and more expensive range of houses is 
shown in Fig. 103. The ground plan of these houses is 
illustrated in Fig. 104, and from tliis the size and uses of 
the different rooms can be ascertained. The expense of 
such a range of houses, complete with iron tables and 
heating apparatus, will not be far from $16,000. They 
were erected by Hitchings & Co., of l^ew York City. 
The range, as will be seen, consists of an elongated hex- 
agonal palm house with a curvilinear roof. The side 
walls are quite high, and, with the pitch of the roof, 
affords room for growing quite large plants. From each 
side of the conservatory, facing east and west, extend 
two span roof growing houses, which can be used for 
stove house, cool stove, and hot and cold propagating 
houses, or houses for carnations and other flowering 
plants. At the end of (he north houses will be seen a 
long thrrc-quarter span rose house and a large work- 



]90 



GEEEifHOUSE CONSTliUCTIOX. 




ARKAXGEMEXT OF GKEEXHOUSES. 



191 




19^ 



GREENHOUSE CONSIKUCIIO.l\. 




ARRANGEMENT OF GREENHOUSES. 



193 



room. The method of construction used by Hitchings 
& Co. is not particularly different from the one used by 
Lord & Burnham Co., the principal difference being 
that the former generally make the rafters and posts iS 
separate pieces, which are clamped together by an iron 
bracket at the plate, and use iron gutters and cave 



^1 



ROSE HOUSE 20K9r 



MERY 
SO' 



G COOL HOUSE 
1 C ar^ir 




NEKir 

X 32' 




RALVI HOUSE 
4ox40 




>RcHio House 



roRCINC HOUSE ie'X67 | 



CREED HOUSE ZO-XS7' 



7] hiiniiijj ^gTnjr 

y POTTINC ROOM 



'^Q?^ TROPICAL HOUSE 2i 



FIG. 106. GROUND PLAN OF LORD & BURNHAM CO. 
RANGE. 

troughs, while the latter use wooden gutters, and forgo 
the posts and rafters from one piece. 

If anything more elaborate is desired, it can be 
found in the range shown in Fig. 105, tl^e ground 
plan of which can be seen in Fig. 106. It was designed, 
and erected by Lord & Burnham Co., at Yonkers, N. Y., 
and, as will be seen from the illustrations, consists of an 
13 



194 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 



octagonal curvilinear conservatory forty by forty feet, 
which is shown in cross section in Fig. 91 ; a stove or 
tropical house, with a curvilinear roof, twenty-two by 
seventy-four feet. Fig. 94 ; a cool house twenty-two by 




FIG. 107. FORCING HOUSE (SecHon). 

thirty-seven feet, also curvilinear ; a span roof green- 
house twenty by sixty-seven feet; a forcing house, with 
a three-quarter span roof, eighteen by sixty-seven feet. 




FIG. 108. ROSE HOUSE (Section). 

Fig. 107 ; an even s])an orchid house, Fig. 96, eighteen 
by forty-five feet; a three-quarter span rose house. Fig. 
108, twenty by ninety-seven feet ; a cool vinery, Fig. 99, 
twenty-two by sixty feet, and a hot vinery, both cuiti- 



GLASS STRUCTUKES FOR AMATEURS. 195 

linear, twenty-two by fifty-two feet, besides a potting 
room and office. 

This establishment is very complete, and seems to 
be well arranged. If plain curvilinear houses are de- 
sired, the forms shown here have been thoroughly tested, 
and have been found quite satisfactory. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

GLASS STRUCTURES FOR AMATEURS. 

Many lovers of gardening, who are restrained from 
indulging in their favorite pastime by our loug six 
months of winter, would gladly erect small glass struc- 
tures in which to prosecute many of the lighter opera- 
tions of gardening, but are deterred by what they imag- 
ine to be the excessive cost. In this chapter an attempt 
will be made to outline methods of constructing several 
forms of small greenhouses that can be chea2)ly erected, 
and which will be found very useful and entirely satis- 
factory. Upon many town, as well as country places, 
we often find small cold frames, or cold pits, in which 
half hardy plants can be stored through the winter, and 
in which many of the hardier vegetable and budding 
plants can be started and grown. At best, they are of 
little value in forwarding plants during the severe parts 
of the winter, and are far from satisfactory in every way. 

For our present purpose a house is needed, perhaps 
ten by fifteen feet in area, convenient to or attached to 
the dwelling, that can be attended to in all weathers 
without exposure, and that can be cheaply constructed 
and maintained. 

ATTACHED CONSERVATORIES. 

It is frequently desirable to have, in connection 
with the dwelling, a room enclosed with glass, in which 



I'JG 



GKEENHOUSE CONSTKUCTION. 



flowers can be grown or exljibited. The large structures 
that are sometimes seen do not differ, in their principal 
features, from detached conservatories, and need no con- 
sideration here. Although the best results, so far as 
the growth of the plants is concerned, cannot be obtained 
in a lean-to structure, the fact that small conservatories 
can be placed in an angle of the dwelling, where the 
walls of the house will form the end and rear of the con- 




FIG. 109. VERANDA CONSERVATORY. 

scrvatory, and thus greatly reduce the cost of construc- 
tion, leads to their use when the first outlay is consid- 
ered. These attached conservatories, in the lean-to 
style, may vary in width from six to fifteen feet, but if 
anything wider than this is desired, it will be best to 
have detached houses, or to use some other form of roof. 
The simplest kind of a conservatory of this style is 
made from an ordinary veranda, in which the spaces 



ATTACHED CONSERVATORIES. 



197 



between the side posts are filled in v.itli glass sash. 
These can be taken out in the summer, if desired, and 
tlie veranda restored to its ordinary use. By the addi- 
tion of a glass roof, far better results can be obtained, 
however, and if a veranda conservatory is to be built, it 
will be found cheaper, than a wooden or a tin roof. It 
should be eight or nine 
feet wide, to secure the 
best results, although a 
veranda five feet wide 
will answer as a con- 
servatory. 

In constructing 
these veranda conserva- 
tories, Fig. 109, a loca- 
tion on the south side 
of the house should be 
selected, as a rule, al- 
though for ferns and 
similar plants, the east, 
or even the north side 
i s preferable. The 
framework of the con- 
servatory should be put 
up in a permanent man- 
ner, as should the en- 
tire roof, but it will be 
sometimes found best, ^i»- H^- verai^da coif- 
if the glass in the side servatort (Section). 

and ends "is of temporary sashes, so arranged that they 
can be taken out, as seen in cross section. Fig. 110. The 
floor should be at the same height, and constructed in 
the same manner as for an ordinary veranda, although a 
cement floor may be used if desired. In case a wooden 
floor is used, the veranda should be closed in below, or 
ceiled against the floor joists. 




198 GKEENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 

If designed as a conservatory for flowers, a doorway 
in tlie wall of the dwelling shonld be arranged in the 
middle, either of tlie side or end, and in case the con- 
servatory is a large one, it will be convenient to have an 
outer door. As a rule, these doors should be opposite 
each otlicr. It is also an excellent plan to have the por- 
tion of the wall of the house adjoining the conservatory, 
of glass. The posts should be from five to seven feet 
high, and ])laced five feet six inches apart. At the 
height of two feet a sash sill should be jilaced, and the 
space beneath should be filled in to correspond with the 
finisli of the house. The walls of the veranda above this 
sill may be of permanent sash bars and glass, or, as is 
better, unless it is to be used as a conservatory through- 
out the year, the spaces between the posts may be filled 
in with glass sash that can be taken out during the 
summer. 

If a veranda is made eight feet high at the eaves, 
this will admit of the placing of a ventilating sash in 
the front wall, but in low structures it will have to be 
placed in the roof. Tlie conservatory roof should have 
rafters of two by four inch cypress running from each 
post to the wall of the house. The remaining frame- 
work of the roof will consist of two by one and one- 
eighth inch sash bars. In Fig. 110 is shown a cross sec- 
tion of a house six feet wide, from which the details for 
the construction of the walls and roof can be ascertained, 
while Fig. 109 gives an idea of the exterior appearance of 
the same conservatory. 

If the amount of glass exposed is not too large, nec- 
essary heat can be supplied from the adjoining living 
room for so-called cool house plants, but it will be desir- 
able to have heat directly supplied to the room. Hot 
water or steam heating pipes, arranged as in Fig. 110, 
will be desirable, but if nothing better is available, one 
or two large kerosene heating stoves can be used, pro- 



ATTACHED COKSERVATORIBS. 



199 



^05 

? O 
^^ 

■ Pi 




200 



GREENHOUSE COMSTRUCTION. 



iirraiiiicd to currv olT llie Leases of 



U,cl 



vided i)ipe.s 
combustion. 

If more elaborate structures are desired, they should 
be of a style that will correspond with that of the resi- 
dence. The location at the corner of the house, as seen 
in Fig. Ill, is desirable, as light can be obtained from 
three sides, and better results can be obtained than in a 
veranda conservatory. 

DETACHED GREENHOUSES FOR AMATEURS. 

It frequently happens that for some reason it is not 
desirable to have the conservatory attached to a building, 
in which case there will be a great variety of structures 
from which to select. Here, again, the lean-to form 

will be found a cheap one to 
erect, and the same direc- 
tions apply here as in a large 
house. In Fig. 112 is pre- 
sented a cross section of a 
house built by Chas. Bar- 
nard, and described in the 
American Gd't'den, October, 
1890. The walls were built 
as shown in the engraving, 
sheathed on both sides, and 
with a layer of hair felt 
inside. A cheaper wall 
could be erected by double 
boarding the outside, and 
having a layer of heavy 
The outside board- 
roof, 

to act as a wind-break. The walls measure five feet six 
inches outside, and the roof is formed of hotbed sash, 
the joints being made tight with battens. Ventilation 
is secured through a cupola in the center of the ridge. 




FIG. 112. A CHEAP 

HOUSE {Section). 
building paper between the boards 
inff of the north wall extends one foot above the 



PORTABLE CONSEEVATOEIES. 201 

Tho btiso of tliis is twelve iiielies square, and tlie circu- 
hitioii of air is controlled by a damper, as will be seen 
from the engraving. If other forms of houses are 
desired, they will only be miniatures of the large ones 
described in previous chapters. 

POETABLE COXSERYATORIES. 

Several builders make a specialty of supplying 
houses of the kind. Fig. 113 shows one of these houses 
put up by Ilitchings & Co., and in Fig. 114 is seen the 
same house with a portion of the sash removed. As 
will be seen, the houses are built with an iron frame, 
similar to that used in large houses, and covered with 
sash that can be very quickly put in j^lace. They are 
supplied with hot water heating apparatus, and ventilat- 
ing machinery. Besides being portable, the houses are 
extensible, and another section can be added with little 
trouble at any time. A house eight by sixteen feet, with 
heating and ventilating apparatus, costs about 1360. It 
makes a very durable house, and is, in every way, first 
class. 

If one cannot afford so expensive a house, a very 
satisfactory conservatoiy can be built by using four by 
four inch j)osts for the walls, set four feet apart, and 
with every other post four feet high, the others being 
cut off at the height of two and one-half feet ; sash, sills, 
plates, end rafters and ridge pieces can be obtained, cut 
in the desired shapes, at any wood-working factory, or 
from dealers in greenhouse materials. The roof may be 
made of fixed sash bars or of temporary sash. 

The heating apparatus for a narrow house will cost 
from four to five dollars per linear foot, and the venti- 
lating apparatus from ten to fifty cents, according to the 
kind used. The lumber can be estimated at about 13.00 
per linear foot, and the glass will not be far from 11.50 
per foot, while the labor of carpenters and painters will 



202 



GREENHOUSE COJSSTEUCTION. 




PORTABLE CONSERVATORIES. 



203 



So 




204 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 



be about 12,50 i)cr foot, or a total of 1325 to 1250 for a 
substantial house liftceu by twenty feet, with heating 
ai)paratus and benches. 

THE BASEMENT PIT. 

There are some objections to the structure to which 
the above name has been given, the principal ones being 
that it is somewhat difldcnlt of access, that it is incon- 
spicuous, and that the plants grown there do not give 
the pleasure they would, were it entirely above ground 



^ 



rzn 



B 



1 , 1 , 1 ,1, 1 



. ' . ' . '^ ' ^' . '^' . ' ^ 



FIG. 115. GROUND PLAN OF BASEMENT PIT. 

and separated from one of the living rooms by a glass 
partition. The points claimed for the basement pit are, 
that it is very easily heated, owing to the comparatively 
small area of exposed glass, and its cheapness of con- 
struction, and every one of the objections urged against 
it could be overcome by raising the structure to the 
ground level and supplying the needed glass partition 
and door. 

For the location, it is best to select the south side of 
the dwelling, if i)ossible, although the west, or east, or a 
point between would answer. If it can be situated 
where a cellar window is located, all the better. The 
wall is torn away so as to aiTord an ojjening three feet 



THE BASEMEXT PIT. 



205 



wide, in which a glass door should be placed. The exca- 
vation is then made, and the wall of masonry laid up 
to the general level outside (Fig. 115). The highest 
point of the roof should be located four feet above the 
top of the foundation. Four by six inch sills, Fig. 116, 
(a) should then be put down, and upon these four by 
four inch posts (b) twenty inches high, and with rabbets 
for glass, should be placed at the corners and at inter- 
vals of five feet along the side 
and ends. The two by five 
inch plate is then placed, as 
seen at (c), and a four by two 
inch fascia (d) should be set 
into the tops of the posts 
along the front, and two by 
four inch rafters (/) should 
extend from the top of the 
posts to the wall of the house, 
where they should be sup- 
ported by a four by one inch 
ridge board. A gutter (e), if 
desired, will complete the ex- 
terior of the structure, with 
the exception of the sash bars, fig. 116. details for 
purlins, ventilators, and glaz- basement pit. 

ing, which will not differ from the same parts of a green- 
house. The interior arrangement will depend upon the 
uses to which it is to be put. The doorway may be in 
the center of the back wall, or, better yet, about three 
and one-half feet from the east end. If desired, a flat 
table ( C) three feet wide, for starting cuttings and seed- 
lings, and for the growing of vegetable and bedding 
plants, can extend along the west and south sides, and 
on the east (A) and north (B) sides tiers of shelves may 
be placed, on wliich the larger plants can be arranged. 
The amount of heat required for such a house will 




206 



GREENHOUSE CONSTEUCTION. 



depend eonsic'erably upon the kinds of plants to be 
grown, as for many greenhouse plants a temperature of 
forty-five to fifty degrees is ample at night, and if it 
occasionally drops below forty degrees no harm will be 
done, while most of the so-called stove plants would be 
injured if the temperature remains below sixty degrees 
for any length of time. If the pit opens into a large 
cellar, particularly if it contains a hot air furnace, or 
other heating apparatus, there will be little danger of 
frost, except in severe cold weather, when an oil stove 
placed in the room will be all tliat is necessary. For 




FIG. 117. CELLAR-WAT CONSERVATORY [Perspective). 

stove plants, the use of a second stove in severe weather 
would probably be required. If the dwelling is heated 
by hot water or steam, of course the matter of heating 
would be very simple, and, if not, the next most satisfac- 
tory plan will be to use a small hot water heater, or to 
obtain heat by placing a coil in a hot air furnace and 
connecting it with hot water heating pipes in the con- 
servatory. Directions for arranging the pipes, etc., will 
be found in the chapter on Heating Greenhouses. 

Where only a small cold frame or hot bed is wanted, 
it can be arranged just outside a cellar window. If a 
frame four by two feet is sunk in the ground and covered 
Avith a hotbed sash, the pit thus made can be used for 



THE BASEMENT PIT. 



207 



growing quite a variety of greenhouse j^lants, and. for 
starting plants in the spring. In severe weatlier a light 
covering may he required to keep out frost, although if 
the cellar contains a furnace this will not he necessary, 
in ordinary winters, except in the colder sections of the 
countrv. A writer in American Garden describes a cold 




FIG. 118. CELLAR-WAY CONSERVATORY (Section). 

pit arranged in the outside cellar-way of a house. 
The doors should be removed and replaced by hotbed 
sash, as in Fig. 117, which shows the appearance of the 
cellar-way from the outside. The stairs, Fig. 1J8, can 
be used as shelves for the plants, and it will make a good 
place for wintering any half-hardy plants. By the use 



208 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 



of shutters and mats the frost can be kept out, even 
without opening the inner doors. If artificial heat can 
be provided, a variety of plants can be grown. 



INDEX. 



Amateurs, greenhouses for 

Arrangement of houses 

JJaniarci lieater 

Kencli bottoms, slate 

liencli bottoms, tile 

Bench bottoms, wooden 

Hencli frame, angle iron 

Hench frame, gas pipe for 

Hench frame, wooden 

Benches, greenhouse 

Boiler, size of, to use 

Boilers, steam, and their loca- 
tion 

Braces and posts 

Brat;ket brace for roof 

Brads and points for glazing. . . 

Brick walls, construction of.. .. 

Buihlers, greeidiouse 

Butted glass 

"Challenge" ventilating ma- 
chine 

Changes of direction and level 
in heating pipes 

Cheap ventilal ing machine — 

Cold frames and pits 

Combined wood and iron 
liouses 

Commercial establishments.. .. 

Connecting different systems.. 

Conservatories, attached 

Conservatories, iron frame 

Conservatories, portable 

Conservatories, small, heating 
of 

Conservatories, use and con- 
struct ion of 

Conservatory, basement 

Conservatory, cellarway 

Continuous ventilation 

Cool houses 

Curvilinear houses 

Dealers in greenhouse material 

Details for iron and wood roof 

Details for wooden roof 

Double and single strength 
glass 

Drip gutters in sash bars 

Even span houses 

Fire heat for orchard houses.. . 

Fire hotbeds 

Fire surface, arrangement of.. 



19.5 Fluted and rough jilate glass.. 

21 Flues for heating conservato- 

135 ries 

84 Forms of greenhouses 

82 Frames, cold 

77 Galvanized iron sash bars 

80 Glass and glazing 

79 Glass, grades of 

76 Glass, refraction of light by.. .. 

7G Glass, 3ize of 

126 Glass, strength of 

Glazing, methods of 

123 Glazing strip 

42 Graperies, forms and construc- 

42 tion of 

60 Greenhouse, a cheap, for ama- 

26 teurs 

4 Greenhouse benches 

62 Greenhouse heating 

Greenhouses, arrangement of.. 

74 Greenhouses for amateurs 

Grout walls, construction of. .. 

114 Gutters, wooden 

74 Heater, Barnard 

165 Heater, Carmody 

Heater, Furman 

40 Heater. Hitchings' base burn- 

139 ing 

114 Healer, Hitchings' corrugated. 

196 Heater, Spence 

170 Heatei', Weathereds' conical. .. 

201 Heaters, hot water, forms of. .. 

Heaters, hot water, size to use 

134 Heating, experimental tests . .. 

Heating, flues for 

166 Heating greenhouses S . 

204 Heating, Polmaise system of. . . 

206 Heating with hot water 

68 Heating with steam 

176 Helliwell patent glazing 

18 History of greenhouses 

35 Hotbeds, lire 

41 Hotbeds, the making of 

38 Hotbed yards 

Hot water heaters, points for.. 

58 Hot water under pressure 

34 Hot water vs. steam 

6 Interior arrangement of con- 

184 servatories 

138 Iron houses 

93 Iron posts and sills 

209 



136 
6 

165 
47 
56 
56 
50 
57 
58 
59 
65 

178 

200 

76 

90 

185 

195 

25 

29 

135 

115 

119 

121 
116 
117 
116 
115 
120 
131 
136 

90 
137 

91 
123 

46 
1 
138 
163 
162 

93 
1)3 
129 



210 



GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 



Iron rafters and purlins 40 

Iron sash bars, galvanized 47 

Lean-to lionses ]"2 

Lettuce lionses, oonstrnction of 154 
Location and arrangement of 

lionses 21 

Maoliinery, ventilating Gi) 

Masonry wal Is 'M 

Mats and shutters Kil 

iMeasiuing llie pitch 53 

Narrow liouses, piping for 110 

New departure ventilating 

niaeliine 72 

New nietliods of glazing 6G 

North side propagating houses 157 
Orcliard houses, (!onstriictioii of 182 
Orchid houses, construction of. 177 

Outside sliafting 74 

Overhead piping 108 

Over vs. under bench piping. . . 10.'^ 

Paint bulb 64 

Painting and shading 85 

Paradigm patent glazing 47 

Permanent sasli bars 37 

Pipe, amount and size of, for 

hot water 104 

Pipe, amount and size of, for 

steam 125 

Pipes, slope of 99 

Pipes and piping for hot water 97 
Pipes and piping for steam — 124 
Piping, arrangement of, for hot 

water 115 

Piping, arrangement of, for 

steam 124 

Piping, over vs. under bench .. 103 

Pits, basement 204 

Pits, cold 1G5 

Pitch, the optimum 51 

Pitch of the roof 49 

Plan for commercial establish- 
ment 141 

Plates and gutters 29 

Points and Virads, glazing 60 

I'olniaise system of glazing — 137 

Portable conservatories 201 

Portable frames 160 

Port able roof 35 

Posts and braces, iron 43 

Posts and sills, iron 32 

Potting room, arraiigeineiit of. 22 

Propagating case 158 

Propagating houses, construc- 
tion of 157 

Purlin, gas pipe 42 



Purlins and rafters, iron 40 

Putty and its application 59 

Putty bulbs and machines 64 

Rafters and imilins, irt)n 40 

Refraction of light by glass 50 

Repainting greenhouses 87 

Ridge and furrow houses 11 

Ridge, size and form of 38 

Roofs, construction of 33 

Roofs, details for 38 

Roofs, pitch of 49 

Rose houses, benches for 140 

Rose iKjuses, construction of. .. 142 

Rose houses, cost of 149 

Sash, ventilating 68 

Sash bars, forms of 34r 

Sash bars, metallic 45- 

Shading greenhouses 88- 

Short span to the south 55- 

Shutters and mats 161 

Side-hill houses 14 

Sills and ]}osts. Iron 32: 

Size and'amount of pipe for hot 

water 104 

Size and amount of pipe for 

steam 125- 

Size of glass 57 

Slate for benches 84 

Slope of pipes 99> 

Solid beds 84 

Span roof houses 6- 

"Standard" ventilating appa- 
ratus 72: 

Steam lieating 123- 

Steam vs. hot water 129> 

Stove houses 174 

Strip, Gasser's glazing 65- 

Three-quarter span houses 1& 

Tile for benches ► 82 

Valves and expansion tank — 112 
"Ventilating machine, a cheaj).. 74 
Ventilating machine, "Chal- 
lenge'' 74 

Ventilating machine, "New De- 
parture " 72 

Ventilating machine, "Stand- 
ard" 72 

Ventilating shafting 70 

Ventilators 67 

Veranda conservatory 196- 

Walls for greenhouses 24 

Water bencli for propagating 

houses 158 

Wooden walls, construction of 2T 
Work room, arrangement of . . . 2'i 



SENT FREE ON APPLICATION. 



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Mark W. Johnson. Illustrated. Contents : Times for Sowing Seeds; 
Coveriug Seeds; Field Crops; Garden or Vegetable Seeds, Sweet 
Herbs, etc.; Tree Seeds ; Flower Seeds ; Fruii Trees; Distances Apart 
for Fruit Trees and Shrubs ; Profitable Farming ; Green or Manuring 
Crops ; Root Crops; Forage Plants ; What to do with the Crops ; The 
Rotation of Crops; Varieties; Paper Covers, post-paid 50 

Your Plants. 

Plain and Practical Directions for the Treatment of Tender and Hardy 
Plants in the House and in the Garden. By James Sheehan. The 
above title well describes the character of the work — " Plain and Prac- 
tical." The author, a commercial florist and gardener, has endeavored, 
in this work, to answer the many questions asked by his customers, as 
to tlie proper treatment of plants. The book shows all through that 
its author is a practical man, and he writes as one with a large store 
of experience. The work better meets the wants of the amateur who 
grows a few plarts in the window, or has a small flower Garden, than 
a larger treatise intended for those who cultivate plants upon a more 
extendedscale. Price, post-paid, paper covers 40 

Husmann's American Grape-Growing and Wine-Making. 

By George Ilusmann of Talcoa vineyards, Napa, California. New and 
enlarged edition. With contributions from well-known grape-growers, 
giving a wide range of experience. The author of this book is a 
recognized authority on the subject. Cloth, 13mo 1.50 

The Scientific Angler. 

A general and instructive work on Artistic Angling, by the late David 
Foster. Complied by his Sons. With an Introductory Chapter and 
Copious Foot Notes, by William C. Harris, Editor of the "American 
Angler." Cloth, I'imo 1.5Q 



6 STANDARD BOOKS. 

Keeping One Cow. 

A collection of Prize Essays, and selections from a number of other 
Essays, with erlitorial notes, suggestions, etc. This book gives the 
latest information, and in a clea^^ and condensed form, upon the man- 
agement of a single Milch Cow, Illustrated with full-page engrav- 
ings of the most famous daily cows. Keceutly published. Cloth, 
12mo -. -- -- 1.00 

Law's Veterinary Adviser 

A Guide to the Prevention and Treatment of Disease in Domestic 
Animals. This is one of the best works on this subject, and is especi- 
ally designed to supply the need of the busy American Farmer, who 
can rarely avail himself of the advice of a Scientific Veterinarian. It 
is brought up to date and treats of the Prevention of Disease, as well 
as of the Remedies. By Prof. Jas. Law. Cloth, Crown 8vo 3.00 

Guenon's Treatise on Milch Cows. 

A Treatise on the Bovine Species in General. An entirely new trans- 
lation of the last edition of this popular and instructive bock. By 
Thos. J. Hand, Secretary of the American Jersey Cattle Club With 
over 100 Illustrations, especially engraved for this work. Cloth, 12mo. 

1.00 

The Cider Maker's Handbook. 

A complete guide for making and keeping pure cider. By J. M. Trow- 
bridge. Fully Illustrated. Cloth, 12mu 1.00 

Long's Ornamental Gardening for Americans. 

A treatise on Beautifying Homes, Rural Districts, and Cemeteries. A 
plain and practical work at a moderate price, with numerous illus- 
trations, and instructions so plain that they may be readily followed. 
By Elias A. Long. Landscape Architect. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 

2.00 

The Dogs of Great Britain, America and Other Countries. 

New, enlarged and revised edition. Their breeding, training and 
management, irj health and disease ; comprising all the essential parts 
of the" two standard works on the dog, by " Stonehenge, " thereby fur- 
nishing for $2 what once cost $11.25. Contains Lists of all Premiumg 
given at the last Dog Shows. It Describes the Best Game and Hunt- 
ing Grounds in America. Contains over One Hundred Beautiful En- 
gravings, embracing most noted Dogs in both Continents, making to- 
gether, with Chapters by American Writers, the most Complete Dog 
Book ever published. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00 

Stewart's Feeding Animals. 

By Elliot VV. Stewart. A new and valuable practical work upon tho 
laws of animal growth, s|)ecially applied to the rearing and feeding 
horses, cattle, diary cows, sheep and swine, illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 

2.00 

How to Co-operate. 

A Manual for Co-operators. By Herbert Myrick. This book describes 
the iiow rather than the wherefore of co-operation. In other words it 
tells how to manage a co-operative store, farm or factory, and co-op- 
erative dairying, banking and fire insurance, and co-operative farmers' 
and women's exchanges for both buying and selling. The directions 
given are based on the actual experience of successful co-operative en- 
terprises in all parts of the United States. Tlie character and useful- 
ness of the book commend it to the attention of all men and women 
who desire to better their condition. 12mo. Cloth 1.50 






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